RSS-Feed abonnieren
Bitte kopieren Sie die angezeigte URL und fügen sie dann in Ihren RSS-Reader ein.
https://www.thieme-connect.de/rss/thieme/de/10.1055-s-00000071.xml
PDF herunterladen
Semin Neurol 2007; 27(2): 183-194
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-971171
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-971171
Botulinum Toxin in Movement Disorders
Weitere Informationen
Publikationsverlauf
Publikationsdatum:
27. März 2007 (online)
ABSTRACT
Botulinum toxin inhibits the vesicular release of acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction, resulting in a transient, localized paralysis when small doses are injected. The successful use of serotypes A and B in conditions with muscle overactivity such as dystonia and spasticity has been well established. Apart from approved indications, treatment with botulinum toxin injections is attempted in a variety of new areas of neurology, including tremor, tics, and myoclonus. This article provides an update on the uses of botulinum toxin in the field of movement disorders and draws special attention to theoretical and practical treatment issues of primary and secondary dystonic disorders. Long-term experience with this agent suggests that it is an effective and safe treatment not only for approved indications but also for the increasing number of off-label indications. However, controlled studies for many conditions are lacking, and more clinical trials in many different areas are warranted.
KEYWORDS
Botulinum toxin - movement disorders - dystonia
REFERENCES
- 1 Cordivari C, Misra V P, Catania S, Lees A J. Treatment of dystonic clenched fist with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord. 2001; 16 907-913
- 2 Rossetto O, Seveso M, Caccin P, Schiavo G, Montecucco C. Tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins: turning bad guys into good by research. Toxicon. 2001; 39 27-41
- 3 Brin M F. Botulinum toxin: chemistry, pharmacology, toxicity, and immunology. Muscle Nerve Suppl. 1997; 6 S146-S168
- 4 Eleopra R, Tugnoli V, Quatrale R, Rossetto O, Montecucco C. Different types of botulinum toxin in humans. Mov Disord. 2004; 19(suppl 8) S53-S59
- 5 Sampaio C, Costa J, Ferreira J J. Clinical comparability of marketed formulations of botulinum toxin. Mov Disord. 2004; 19(suppl 8) S129-S136
- 6 Eleopra R, Tugnoli V, Rossetto O, Montecucco C, De Grandis D. Botulinum neurotoxin serotype C: a novel effective botulinum toxin therapy in human. Neurosci Lett. 1997; 224 91-94
- 7 Greene P E, Fahn S. Response to botulinum toxin F in seronegative botulinum toxin A-resistant patients. Mov Disord. 1996; 11 181-184
- 8 Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin in clinical practice. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004; 75 951-957
- 9 Ceballos-Baumann A O. Evidence-based medicine in botulinum toxin therapy for cervical dystonia. J Neurol. 2001; 248(suppl 1) 14-20
- 10 Deuschl G, Heinen F, Kleedorfer B, Wagner M, Lucking C H, Poewe W. Clinical and polymyographic investigation of spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol. 1992; 239 9-15
- 11 Krauss J K, Loher T J, Pohle T et al.. Pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with cervical dystonia and severe cervical dyskinesias with cervical myelopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002; 72 249-256
- 12 Comella C L, Jankovic J, Brin M F. Use of botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2000; 55(suppl 5) S15-S21
- 13 Jankovic J. Treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord. 2004; 19(suppl 8) S109-S115
- 14 Jankovic J, Orman J. Botulinum A toxin for cranial-cervical dystonia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology. 1987; 37 616-623
- 15 Kessler K R, Skutta M, Benecke R. Long-term treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin A: efficacy, safety, and antibody frequency. German Dystonia Study Group. J Neurol. 1999; 246 265-274
- 16 Blackie J D, Lees A J. Botulinum toxin treatment in spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990; 53 640-643
- 17 Gelb D J, Lowenstein D H, Aminoff M J. Controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections in the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology. 1989; 39 80-84
- 18 Greene P, Kang U, Fahn S, Brin M, Moskowitz C, Flaster E. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology. 1990; 40 1213-1218
- 19 Koller W, Vetere-Overfield B, Gray C, Dubinsky R. Failure of fixed-dose, fixed muscle injection of botulinum toxin in torticollis. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1990; 13 355-358
- 20 Lorentz I T, Subramaniam S S, Yiannikas C. Treatment of idiopathic spasmodic torticollis with botulinum toxin A: a double-blind study on twenty-three patients. Mov Disord. 1991; 6 145-150
- 21 Tarsy D. Comparison of clinical rating scales in treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord. 1997; 12 100-102
- 22 Brashear A, Lew M F, Dykstra D D et al.. Safety and efficacy of NeuroBloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type A-responsive cervical dystonia. Neurology. 1999; 53 1439-1446
- 23 Brin M F, Lew M F, Adler C H et al.. Safety and efficacy of NeuroBloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type A-resistant cervical dystonia. Neurology. 1999; 53 1431-1438
- 24 Costa J, Borges A, Espirito-Santo C et al.. Botulinum toxin type A versus botulinum toxin type B for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005; (1) CD004314
- 25 Comella C L, Jankovic J, Shannon K M et al.. Comparison of botulinum toxin serotypes A and B for the treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2005; 65 1423-1429
- 26 Ostergaard L, Fuglsang-Frederiksen A, Werdelin L, Sjo O, Winkel H. Quantitative EMG in botulinum toxin treatment of cervical dystonia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1994; 93 434-439
- 27 Comella C L, Buchman A S, Tanner C M, Brown-Toms N C, Goetz C G. Botulinum toxin injection for spasmodic torticollis: increased magnitude of benefit with electromyographic assistance. Neurology. 1992; 42 878-882
- 28 Poewe W, Deuschl G, Nebe A et al.. What is the optimal dose of botulinum toxin A in the treatment of cervical dystonia? Results of a double blind, placebo controlled, dose ranging study using Dysport. German Dystonia Study Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998; 64 13-17
- 29 Odergren T, Hjaltason H, Kaakkola S et al.. A double blind, randomised, parallel group study to investigate the dose equivalence of Dysport and Botox in the treatment of cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998; 64 6-12
- 30 Ranoux D, Gury C, Fondarai J, Mas J L, Zuber M. Respective potencies of Botox and Dysport: a double blind, randomised, crossover study in cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002; 72 459-462
- 31 Sloop R R, Cole D, Patel M C. Muscle paralysis produced by botulinum toxin type A injection in treated torticollis patients compared with toxin naive individuals. Mov Disord. 2001; 16 100-105
- 32 Atassi M Z. Basic immunological aspects of botulinum toxin therapy. Mov Disord. 2004; 19(suppl 8) S68-S84
- 33 Goschel H, Wohlfarth K, Frevert J, Dengler R, Bigalke H. Botulinum A toxin therapy: neutralizing and nonneutralizing antibodies: therapeutic consequences. Exp Neurol. 1997; 147 96-102
- 34 Berman B, Seeberger L, Kumar R. Long-term safety, efficacy, dosing, and development of resistance with botulinum toxin type B in cervical dystonia. Mov Disord. 2005; 20 233-237
- 35 Jankovic J, Schwartz K. Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections. Neurology. 1995; 45 1743-1746
- 36 Mejia N I, Vuong K D, Jankovic J. Long-term botulinum toxin efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity. Mov Disord. 2005; 20 592-597
- 37 Hsiung G Y, Das S K, Ranawaya R, Lafontaine A L, Suchowersky O. Long-term efficacy of botulinum toxin A in treatment of various movement disorders over a 10-year period. Mov Disord. 2002; 17 1288-1293
- 38 Greene P, Fahn S, Diamond B. Development of resistance to botulinum toxin type A in patients with torticollis. Mov Disord. 1994; 9 213-217
- 39 Jankovic J, Vuong K D, Ahsan J. Comparison of efficacy and immunogenicity of original versus current botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2003; 60 1186-1188
- 40 Dressler D, Benecke R. Autonomic side effects of botulinum toxin type B treatment of cervical dystonia and hyperhidrosis. Eur Neurol. 2003; 49 34-38
- 41 Jahanshahi M, Marsden C D. Psychological functioning before and after treatment of torticollis with botulinum toxin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992; 55 229-231
- 42 Muller J, Wissel J, Kemmler G et al.. Craniocervical dystonia questionnaire (CDQ-24): development and validation of a disease-specific quality of life instrument. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004; 75 749-753
- 43 Skogseid I M, Roislien J, Claussen B, Kerty E. Long-term botulinum toxin treatment increases employment rate in patients with cervical dystonia. Mov Disord. 2005; 20 1604-1609
- 44 Muller J, Kemmler G, Wissel J et al.. The impact of blepharospasm and cervical dystonia on health-related quality of life and depression. J Neurol. 2002; 249 842-846
- 45 Frei K P, Pathak M, Jenkins S, Truong D D. Natural history of posttraumatic cervical dystonia. Mov Disord. 2004; 19 1492-1498
- 46 Sa D S, Mailis-Gagnon A, Nicholson K, Lang A E. Posttraumatic painful torticollis. Mov Disord. 2003; 18 1482-1491
- 47 Goldman S, Ahlskog J E. Posttraumatic cervical dystonia. Mayo Clin Proc. 1993; 68 443-448
- 48 Truong D D, Dubinsky R, Hermanowicz N, Olson W L, Silverman B, Koller W C. Posttraumatic torticollis. Arch Neurol. 1991; 48 221-223
- 49 Kiriakakis V, Bhatia K P, Quinn N P, Marsden C D. The natural history of tardive dystonia: a long-term follow-up study of 107 cases. Brain. 1998; 121 2053-2066
- 50 Kang U J, Burke R E, Fahn S. Natural history and treatment of tardive dystonia. Mov Disord. 1986; 1 193-208
- 51 Brashear A, Ambrosius W T, Eckert G J, Siemers E R. Comparison of treatment of tardive dystonia and idiopathic cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin type A. Mov Disord. 1998; 13 158-161
- 52 Tan E K, Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin A in patients with oromandibular dystonia: long-term follow-up. Neurology. 1999; 53 2102-2107
- 53 Bhattacharyya N, Tarsy D. Impact on quality of life of botulinum toxin treatments for spasmodic dysphonia and oromandibular dystonia. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001; 127 389-392
- 54 Tolosa E, Kulisevsky J, Fahn S. Meige syndrome: primary and secondary forms. Adv Neurol. 1988; 50 509-515
- 55 Rajabally Y A, Farrell D, Messios N. Oro-mandibular dystonia in a case of multiple sclerosis with capsular plaque. Eur Neurol. 2003; 49 190-191
- 56 Baik J S, Park J H, Kim J Y. Primary lingual dystonia induced by speaking. Mov Disord. 2004; 19 1251-1252
- 57 Papapetropoulos S, Singer C. Primary focal lingual dystonia. Mov Disord. 2006; 21 429-430
- 58 Tan E K, Chan L L. Sensory tricks and treatment in primary lingual dystonia. Mov Disord. 2005; 20 388
- 59 Bhidayasiri R, Cardoso F, Truong D D. Botulinum toxin in blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia: comparing different botulinum toxin preparations. Eur J Neurol. 2006; 13(suppl 1) 21-29
- 60 Klawans H L, Tanner C M. Cholinergic pharmacology of blepharospasm with oromandibular dystonia (Meige's syndrome). Adv Neurol. 1988; 49 443-450
- 61 Jankovic J. Etiology and differential diagnosis of blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia. Adv Neurol. 1988; 49 103-116
- 62 Capelle H H, Weigel R, Krauss J K. Bilateral pallidal stimulation for blepharospasm-oromandibular dystonia (Meige syndrome). Neurology. 2003; 60 2017-2018
- 63 Jankovic J, Beach J. Long-term effects of tetrabenazine in hyperkinetic movement disorders. Neurology. 1997; 48 358-362
- 64 Blitzer A, Brin M F, Greene P E, Fahn S. Botulinum toxin injection for the treatment of oromandibular dystonia. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1989; 98 93-97
- 65 Brin M F, Fahn S, Moskowitz C et al.. Localized injections of botulinum toxin for the treatment of focal dystonia and hemifacial spasm. Mov Disord. 1987; 2 237-254
- 66 Hermanowicz N, Truong D D. Treatment of oromandibular dystonia with botulinum toxin. Laryngoscope. 1991; 101 1216-1218
- 67 Jankovic J, Schwartz K, Donovan D T. Botulinum toxin treatment of cranial-cervical dystonia, spasmodic dysphonia, other focal dystonias and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990; 53 633-639
- 68 Laskawi R, Rohrbach S. [Oromandibular dystonia: clinical forms, diagnosis and examples of therapy with botulinum toxin]. Laryngorhinootologie. 2001; 80 708-713
- 69 Van den Bergh P, Francart J, Mourin S, Kollmann P, Laterre E C. Five-year experience in the treatment of focal movement disorders with low-dose Dysport botulinum toxin. Muscle Nerve. 1995; 18 720-729
- 70 Wan X H, Vuong K D, Jankovic J. Clinical application of botulinum toxin type B in movement disorders and autonomic symptoms. Chin Med Sci J. 2005; 20 44-47
- 71 Singer C, Papapetropoulos S. A comparison of jaw-closing and jaw-opening idiopathic oromandibular dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2006; 12 115-118
- 72 Tan E K, Jankovic J. Treating severe bruxism with botulinum toxin. J Am Dent Assoc. 2000; 131 211-216
- 73 Burke R E, Fahn S, Jankovic J et al.. Tardive dystonia: late-onset and persistent dystonia caused by antipsychotic drugs. Neurology. 1982; 32 1335-1346
- 74 Jankovic J. Tardive syndromes and other drug-induced movement disorders. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1995; 18 197-214
- 75 Greene P, Shale H, Fahn S. Analysis of open-label trials in torsion dystonia using high dosages of anticholinergics and other drugs. Mov Disord. 1988; 3 46-60
- 76 Tan E K, Jankovic J. Tardive and idiopathic oromandibular dystonia: a clinical comparison. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000; 68 186-190
- 77 Tarsy D, Kaufman D, Sethi K D, Rivner M H, Molho E, Factor S. An open-label study of botulinum toxin A for treatment of tardive dystonia. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1997; 20 90-93
- 78 Ishii K, Tamaoka A, Shoji S. A case of primary focal lingual dystonia induced by speaking. Eur J Neurol. 2001; 8 507
- 79 Blitzer A, Brin M F, Fahn S. Botulinum toxin injections for lingual dystonia. Laryngoscope. 1991; 101 799
- 80 Hallett M, Daroff R B. Blepharospasm: report of a workshop. Neurology. 1996; 46 1213-1218
- 81 Martino D, Defazio G, Alessio G et al.. Relationship between eye symptoms and blepharospasm: a multicenter case-control study. Mov Disord. 2005; 20 1564-1570
- 82 Hall T A, McGwin Jr G, Searcey K et al.. Health-related quality of life and psychosocial characteristics of patients with benign essential blepharospasm. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006; 124 116-119
- 83 Reimer J, Gilg K, Karow A, Esser J, Franke G H. Health-related quality of life in blepharospasm or hemifacial spasm. Acta Neurol Scand. 2005; 111 64-70
- 84 Grandas F, Elston J, Quinn N, Marsden C D. Blepharospasm: a review of 264 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988; 51 767-772
- 85 Jankovic J.
Etiology and differential diagnosis of blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia . In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E Advances in Neurology: Facial Dyskinesias. New York; Raven 1988: 103-116MissingFormLabel - 86 Sachdev P. Tardive blepharospasm. Mov Disord. 1998; 13 947-951
- 87 Scott A B, Kennedy R A, Stubbs H A. Botulinum A toxin injection as a treatment for blepharospasm. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985; 103 347-350
- 88 Tsoy E A, Buckley E G, Dutton J J. Treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum toxin. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985; 99 176-179
- 89 Cibis G W, Waeltermann J. Botulinum isn't just a poison anymore: botulinum toxin in treatment of strabismus and essential blepharospasm. Mo Med. 1985; 82 145-147
- 90 Elston J S, Russell R W. Effect of treatment with botulinum toxin on neurogenic blepharospasm. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1985; 290 1857-1859
- 91 Frueh B R, Felt D P, Wojno T H, Musch D C. Treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum toxin: a preliminary report. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984; 102 1464-1468
- 92 Frueh B R, Nelson C C, Kapustiak J F, Musch D C. The effect of omitting botulinum toxin from the lower eyelid in blepharospasm treatment. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988; 106 45-47
- 93 Mauriello Jr J A. Blepharospasm, Meige syndrome, and hemifacial spasm: treatment with botulinum toxin. Neurology. 1985; 35 1499-1500
- 94 Seiff S R, Shorr N. The effect of omitting botulinum toxin from the lower eyelid in blepharospasm treatment. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988; 106 764-766
- 95 Berardelli A, Formica A, Mercuri B et al.. Botulinum toxin treatment in patients with focal dystonia and hemifacial spasm: a multicenter study of the Italian Movement Disorder Group. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1993; 14 361-367
- 96 Park Y C, Lim J K, Lee D K, Yi S D. Botulinum A toxin treatment of hemifacial spasm and blepharospasm. J Korean Med Sci. 1993; 8 334-340
- 97 Yoshimura D M, Aminoff M J, Tami T A, Scott A B. Treatment of hemifacial spasm with botulinum toxin. Muscle Nerve. 1992; 15 1045-1049
- 98 Nussgens Z, Roggenkamper P. Comparison of two botulinum-toxin preparations in the treatment of essential blepharospasm. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1997; 235 197-199
- 99 Sampaio C, Ferreira J J, Simoes F et al.. DYSBOT: a single-blind, randomized parallel study to determine whether any differences can be detected in the efficacy and tolerability of two formulations of botulinum toxin type A-Dysport and Botox-assuming a ratio of 4:1. Mov Disord. 1997; 12 1013-1018
- 100 Jost W H, Kohl A. Botulinum toxin: evidence-based medicine criteria in blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol. 2001; 248(suppl 1) 21-24
- 101 Dutton J J, Buckley E G. Long-term results and complications of botulinum A toxin in the treatment of blepharospasm. Ophthalmology. 1988; 95 1529-1534
- 102 Price J, Farish S, Taylor H, O'Day J. Blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm: randomized trial to determine the most appropriate location for botulinum toxin injections. Ophthalmology. 1997; 104 865-868
- 103 Colosimo C, Chianese M, Giovannelli M, Contarino M F, Bentivoglio A R. Botulinum toxin type B in blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003; 74 687
- 104 Price J, O'Day J. Efficacy and side effects of botulinum toxin treatment for blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1994; 22 255-260
- 105 Digre K, Corbett J J. Hemifacial spasm: differential diagnosis, mechanism, and treatment. Adv Neurol. 1988; 49 151-176
- 106 Wang A, Jankovic J. Hemifacial spasm: clinical findings and treatment. Muscle Nerve. 1998; 21 1740-1747
- 107 Tan E K, Fook-Chong S, Lum S Y, Lim E. Botulinum toxin improves quality of life in hemifacial spasm: validation of a questionnaire (HFS-30). J Neurol Sci. 2004; 219 151-155
- 108 Jannetta P J, Abbasy M, Maroon J C, Ramos F M, Albin M S. Etiology and definitive microsurgical treatment of hemifacial spasm: operative techniques and results in 47 patients. J Neurosurg. 1977; 47 321-328
- 109 Wilkins R H. Hemifacial spasm: a review. Surg Neurol. 1991; 36 251-277
- 110 Sandberg D I, Souweidane M M. Hemifacial spasm caused by a pilocytic astrocytoma of the fourth ventricle. Pediatr Neurol. 1999; 21 754-756
- 111 Zappia J J, Wiet R J, Chouhan A, Zhao J C. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of hemifacial spasm. Laryngoscope. 1997; 107 461-465
- 112 Frei K, Truong D D, Dressler D. Botulinum toxin therapy of hemifacial spasm: comparing different therapeutic preparations. Eur J Neurol. 2006; 13(suppl 1) 30-35
- 113 Astarloa R, Morales B, Sanchez V et al.. [Focal dystonias and facial hemispasm: treatment with botulinum A toxin]. Arch Neurobiol (Madr). 1991; 54(suppl l) 44-51
- 114 Jitpimolmard S, Tiamkao S, Laopaiboon M. Long term results of botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) in the treatment of hemifacial spasm: a report of 175 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998; 64 751-757
- 115 Mauriello Jr J A, Leone T, Dhillon S, Pakeman B, Mostafavi R, Yepez M C. Treatment choices of 119 patients with hemifacial spasm over 11 years. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1996; 98 213-216
- 116 Defazio G, Abbruzzese G, Girlanda P et al.. Botulinum toxin A treatment for primary hemifacial spasm: a 10-year multicenter study. Arch Neurol. 2002; 59 418-420
- 117 Poungvarin N, Viriyavejakul A. Two hundred and fifty patients with hemifacial spasm treated with botulinum toxin injection. J Med Assoc Thai. 1992; 75 199-203
- 118 Rivest J, Lees A J, Marsden C D. Writer's cramp: treatment with botulinum toxin injections. Mov Disord. 1991; 6 55-59
- 119 Das C P, Dressler D, Hallett M. Botulinum toxin therapy of writer's cramp. Eur J Neurol. 2006; 13(suppl 1) 55-59
- 120 Behari M. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp. J Assoc Physicians India. 1999; 47 694-698
- 121 Cohen L G, Hallett M, Geller B D, Hochberg F. Treatment of focal dystonias of the hand with botulinum toxin injections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989; 52 355-363
- 122 Djebbari R, du Montcel S T, Sangla S, Vidal J S, Gallouedec G, Vidailhet M. Factors predicting improvement in motor disability in writer's cramp treated with botulinum toxin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004; 75 1688-1691
- 123 Karp B I, Cole R A, Cohen L G, Grill S, Lou J S, Hallett M. Long-term botulinum toxin treatment of focal hand dystonia. Neurology. 1994; 44 70-76
- 124 Tsui J K, Bhatt M, Calne S, Calne D B. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp: a double-blind study. Neurology. 1993; 43 183-185
- 125 Wissel J, Kabus C, Wenzel R et al.. Botulinum toxin in writer's cramp: objective response evaluation in 31 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1996; 61 172-175
- 126 Lees A J, Turjanski N, Rivest J, Whurr R, Lorch M, Brookes G. Treatment of cervical dystonia hand spasms and laryngeal dystonia with botulinum toxin. J Neurol. 1992; 239 1-4
- 127 Turjanski N, Pirtosek Z, Quirk J et al.. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1996; 19 314-320
- 128 Molloy F M, Shill H A, Kaelin-Lang A, Karp B I. Accuracy of muscle localization without EMG: implications for treatment of limb dystonia. Neurology. 2002; 58 805-807
- 129 Singer C, Papapetropoulos S, Vela L. Use of mirror dystonia as guidance for injection of botulinum toxin in writing dysfunction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76 1608-1609
- 130 Jankovic J, Tintner R. Dystonia and parkinsonism. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2001; 8 109-121
- 131 Schneider S A, Edwards M J, Grill S E et al.. Adult-onset primary lower limb dystonia. Mov Disord. 2006; 21 767-771
- 132 Singer C, Papapetropoulos S. Adult-onset primary focal foot dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2006; 12 57-60
- 133 Brin M F, Blitzer A, Stewart C. Laryngeal dystonia (spasmodic dysphonia): observations of 901 patients and treatment with botulinum toxin. Adv Neurol. 1998; 78 237-252
- 134 Aronson A E, Brown J R, Litin E M, Pearson J S. Spastic dysphonia. II: comparison with essential (voice) tremor and other neurologic and psychogenic dysphonias. J Speech Hear Disord. 1968; 33 219-231
- 135 Aronson A E, Brown J R, Litin E M, Pearson J S. Spastic dysphonia. I: voice, neurologic, and psychiatric aspects. J Speech Hear Disord. 1968; 33 203-218
- 136 Leonard R, Kendall K. Differentiation of spasmodic and psychogenic dysphonias with phonoscopic evaluation. Laryngoscope. 1999; 109 295-300
- 137 Cohen S M, Dupont W D, Courey M S. Quality-of-life impact of non-neoplastic voice disorders: a meta-analysis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2006; 115 128-134
- 138 Courey M S, Garrett C G, Billante C R et al.. Outcomes assessment following treatment of spasmodic dysphonia with botulinum toxin. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2000; 109 819-822
- 139 Murry T, Woodson G E. Combined-modality treatment of adductor spasmodic dysphonia with botulinum toxin and voice therapy. J Voice. 1995; 9 460-465
- 140 Dedo H H, Behlau M S. Recurrent laryngeal nerve section for spastic dysphonia: 5- to 14-year preliminary results in the first 300 patients. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1991; 100 274-279
- 141 Tucker H M. Laryngeal framework surgery in the management of spasmodic dysphonia: preliminary report. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1989; 98 52-54
- 142 Truong D D, Bhidayasiri R. Botulinum toxin therapy of laryngeal muscle hyperactivity syndromes: comparing different botulinum toxin preparations. Eur J Neurol. 2006; 13(suppl 1) 36-41
- 143 Boutsen F, Cannito M P, Taylor M, Bender B. Botox treatment in adductor spasmodic dysphonia: a meta-analysis. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2002; 45 469-481
- 144 Watts C C, Whurr R, Nye C. Botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic dysphonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004; (3) CD004327
- 145 Whurr R, Nye C, Lorch M. Meta-analysis of botulinum toxin treatment of spasmodic dysphonia: a review of 22 studies. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 1998; 33(suppl) 327-329
- 146 Truong D D, Rontal M, Rolnick M, Aronson A E, Mistura K. Double-blind controlled study of botulinum toxin in adductor spasmodic dysphonia. Laryngoscope. 1991; 101 630-634
- 147 Bielamowicz S, Stager S V, Badillo A, Godlewski A. Unilateral versus bilateral injections of botulinum toxin in patients with adductor spasmodic dysphonia. J Voice. 2002; 16 117-123
- 148 Brin M F, Blitzer A, Fahn S, Gould W, Lovelace R E. Adductor laryngeal dystonia (spastic dysphonia): treatment with local injections of botulinum toxin (Botox). Mov Disord. 1989; 4 287-296
- 149 Ludlow C L, Naunton R F, Sedory S E, Schulz G M, Hallett M. Effects of botulinum toxin injections on speech in adductor spasmodic dysphonia. Neurology. 1988; 38 1220-1225
- 150 Miller R H, Woodson G E, Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin injection of the vocal fold for spasmodic dysphonia: a preliminary report. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1987; 113 603-605
- 151 Blitzer A, Sulica L. Botulinum toxin: basic science and clinical uses in otolaryngology. Laryngoscope. 2001; 111 218-226
- 152 Brin M F, Stewart C, Blitzer A, Diamond B. Laryngeal botulinum toxin injections for disabling stuttering in adults. Neurology. 1994; 44 2262-2266
- 153 Warrick P, Dromey C, Irish J C, Durkin L, Pakiam A, Lang A. Botulinum toxin for essential tremor of the voice with multiple anatomical sites of tremor: a crossover design study of unilateral versus bilateral injection. Laryngoscope. 2000; 110 1366-1374
- 154 Brin M F, Lyons K E, Doucette J et al.. A randomized, double masked, controlled trial of botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Neurology. 2001; 56 1523-1528
- 155 Jankovic J, Schwartz K, Clemence W, Aswad A, Mordaunt J. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Mov Disord. 1996; 11 250-256
- 156 Wissel J, Masuhr F, Schelosky L, Ebersbach G, Poewe W. Quantitative assessment of botulinum toxin treatment in 43 patients with head tremor. Mov Disord. 1997; 12 722-726
- 157 Pullman S L, Greene P, Fahn S, Pedersen S F. Approach to the treatment of limb disorders with botulinum toxin A: experience with 187 patients. Arch Neurol. 1996; 53 617-624
- 158 Henderson J M, Ghika J A, Van Melle G, Haller E, Einstein R. Botulinum toxin A in non-dystonic tremors. Eur Neurol. 1996; 36 29-35
- 159 Singer C, Papapetropoulos S, Spielholz N I. Primary writing tremor: report of a case successfully treated with botulinum toxin A injections and discussion of underlying mechanism. Mov Disord. 2005; 20 1387-1388
- 160 Gonzalez-Alegre P, Kelkar P, Rodnitzky R L. Isolated high-frequency jaw tremor relieved by botulinum toxin injections. Mov Disord. 2006; 21 1049-1050
- 161 Hertegard S, Granqvist S, Lindestad P A. Botulinum toxin injections for essential voice tremor. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2000; 109 204-209
- 162 Cho J W, Chu K, Jeon B S. Case of essential palatal tremor: atypical features and remarkable benefit from botulinum toxin injection. Mov Disord. 2001; 16 779-782
- 163 Singer C, Papapetropoulos S. Lower limb post-immobilization dystonia in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci. 2005; 239 111-114
- 164 Liguori R, Cordivari C, Lugaresi E, Montagna P. Botulinum toxin A improves muscle spasms and rigidity in stiff-person syndrome. Mov Disord. 1997; 12 1060-1063
- 165 Marras C, Andrews D, Sime E, Lang A E. Botulinum toxin for simple motor tics: a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial. Neurology. 2001; 56 605-610
Spiridon PapapetropoulosM.D. Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Neurology, Division of Movement Disorders, University of Miami,
School of Medicine
1501 NW 9th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136