Subscribe to RSS
Please copy the URL and add it into your RSS Feed Reader.
https://www.thieme-connect.de/rss/thieme/en/10.1055-s-00000004.xml
Download PDF
Aktuelle Neurologie 2005; 32(9): 544-565
DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-866933
DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-866933
Fort- und Weiterbildung
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New YorkDrogen und Nervensystem (Teil 2): Klinisch-neurologisches Drogenbrevier
Drugs and Nervous System (Part 2): A Short Clinical and Neurological Compendium of Illicit DrugsFurther Information
Publication History
Publication Date:
07 November 2005 (online)
Weiterbildungsziele In diesem Beitrag sollen folgende Weiterbildungsziele vermittelt werden: Kenntnis der Drogenklassen und der einzelnen wichtigsten Vertreter Kenntnis der neurobiologischen, pharmakologischen und klinisch-neurologischen Wirkungen von:Genussdrogen, Opiaten, Kokain, Stimulanzien, Benzodiazepinen, Butyraten, Halluzinogenen, NMDA-Rezeptorantagonisten, inhalativen Drogen („Schnüffeldrogen”), Cannabinoiden
Literatur
- 1 Hoaken P NS, Stewart S H. Drugs of abuse and the elicitation of human aggressive behavior. Addict Behav. 2003; 28 1533-1554
- 2 Söderpalm B, Ericson M, Olausson P. et al . Nicotinic mechanisms involved in the dopamine activating and reinforcing properties of ethanol. Behav Brain Res. 2000; 113 85-96
- 3 Siggins G R, Martin G, Roberto M. et al . Glutamatergic transmission in opiate and alcohol dependence. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003; 1003 196-211
- 4 Kumar S, Fleming R L, Morrow A L. Ethanol regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors: genomic and nongenomic mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther. 2004; 101 211-226
- 5 Tupala E, Tiihonen J. Dopamine and alcoholism: neurobiological basis of ethanol abuse. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2004; 28 1221-1247
- 6 Alldredge B K, Lowenstein D H. Status epilepticus related to alcohol abuse. Epilepsia. 1993; 34 1033-1037
- 7 Neiman J, Haapaniemi H M, Hilborn M. Neurological complications of drug abuse: pathophysiological mechanisms. Eur J Neurol. 2000; 7 595-606
- 8 Martin P R, Singleton C K, Hiller-Sturmhöfel S. The role of thiamine deficiency in alcoholic brain disease. Alcohol Res Health. 2003; 27 134-142
- 9 Uchino A, Yuzuriha T, Murakami M. et al . Magnetic resonance imaging of sequelae of central pontine myelinolysis in chronic alcohol abusers. Neuroradiology. 2003; 45 877-890
- 10 Kohler C G, Ances B M, Coleman A R. et al . Marchiafava-Bignami disease: literature review and case report. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol. 2000; 13 67-76
- 11 Pahwa R, Lyons K E. Essential tremor: differential diagnosis and current therapy. Am J Med. 2003; 115 134-142
- 12 Pontieri F E, Passarelli F, Calò L, Caronti B. Functional correlates of nicotine administration: similarity with drugs of abuse. J Mol Med. 1998; 76 193-201
- 13 Picciotto M R. Common aspects of the action of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 165-172
- 14 Mathieu-Kia A M, Kellogg S H, Butelman E R, Kreek M J. Nicotine addiction: insights from recent animal studies. Psychopharmacology. 2002; 162 102-118
- 15 Griffiths R R, Woodson P P. Reinforcing properties of caffeine: studies in humans and laboratory animals. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998; 29 419-427
- 16 Daly J W, Fredholm B B. Caffeine - an atypical drug of dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 199-206
- 17 Nestler E J. Historical review: molecular and cellular mechanisms of opiate and cocaine addiction. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2004; 25 210-218
- 18 Noda Y, Nabeshima T. Opiate physical dependence and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004; 500 121-128
- 19 Laviolette S R, Gallegos R A, Henriksen S I, Kooy D van der. Opiate state controls bi-directional reward signaling via GABAAreceptors in the ventral tegemental area. Nature Neurosci. 2004; 7 160-169
- 20 Zhang L C, Buccafusco J J. Adaptive changes in M1 muscarinic receptors localized to sepcific rostral brain regions during and after morphine withdrawal. Neuropharmacology. 2000; 39 1720-1731
- 21 Bockstaele E J van, Menko A S, Drolet G. Neuroadaptive responses in brainstem noradrenergic nuclei following chronic morphine exposure. Mol Neurobiol. 2001; 23 155-171
- 22 Brown C H, Russell J A. Cellular mechanisms underlying neuronal excitability during morphine withdrawal in physical dependence: lessons from the magnocellular oxytocin system. Stress. 2004; 7 97-107
- 23 Zastrow M van, Svingos A, Haberstock-Debic H, Evans C. Regulated endocytosis of opioid receptors: cellular mechanisms and proposed roles in physiological adaptation to opioid drugs. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2003; 13 348-353
- 24 Ciccocioppo R, Angeletti S, Panocka I, Massi M. Nociceptin/orphanin FQ and drugs of abuse. Peptides. 2000; 21 1071-1080
- 25 Roumy M, Garnier M, Zajac J M. Neuropeptide FF receptors 1 and 2 exert an anti-opioid activity in acutely dissociated rat dorsal raphe and periventricular hypothalamic neurones. Neurosci Lett. 2003; 348 159-162
- 26 Zachariou V, Thome J, Parikh K, Picciotto M R. Upregulation of galanin binding sites and GalR1 mRNA levels in the mouse locus coeruleus following chronic morphine treatments and precipitated morphine withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000; 23 127-137
- 27 Bertran F, Denise P, Letellier P. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus: the role of morphine and its antagonists. Neurophysiol Clin. 2000; 30 109-112
- 28 Breivink H. Opioids in cancer and chronic non-cancer pain therapy - indications and controversies. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2001; 45 1059-1066
- 29 Sporer K A. Acute heroin overdose. Ann Intern Med. 1999; 130 584-590
- 30 Alldredge B K, Lowenstein D H, Simon R P. Seizures associated with recreational drug abuse. Neurology. 1989; 39 1037-1039
- 31 Andersen S N, Skullerud K. Hypoxic/brain ischemia damage, especially pallidal lesions, in heroin addicts. Forensic Sci Int. 1999; 102 51-59
- 32 Stamboulis E, Psimaras A, Malliara-loulakaki S. Brachial and lumbar plexitis as a reaction to heroin. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1988; 22 205-207
- 33 Bernasconi A, Kuntzer T, Ladbon N. et al . Complications neurologiques périphériques et médullaires de la toxicomanie intraveineuse à l'héroine. Rev Neurol. 1996; 152 688-694
- 34 Friedman H, Eisenstein T K. Neurological basis of drug dependence and its effects on the immune system. J Neuroimmunol. 2004; 147 106-108
- 35 Vallejo R, Leon-Casasola O de, Ramsun B. Opioid therapy and immunosuppression: a review. Am J Ther. 2004; 11 354-365
- 36 Long H, Deore K, Hoffman R S, Nelson L S. A fatal case of spongiform leukoencephalopathy linked to „chasing the dragon”. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003; 41 887-891
- 37 Wilson S J, Sayette M A, Fiez J A. Prefrontal responses to drug cues: a neurocognitive analysis. Nature Neurosci. 2004; 7 211-214
- 38 Rogers R D, Robbins T W. Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2001; 11 250-257
- 39 Cicero T J, Inciardi J A. Diversion and abuse of methadone prescribed for pain management. JAMA. 2005; 293 297-298
- 40 Manfredi P L, Gonzales G R, Payne R. Reversible spastic paraparesis induced by high-dose intravenous metadone. J Pain. 2001; 2 77-79
- 41 Amara S G, Sonders M S. Neurotransmitter transporters as molecular targets for addictive drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 87-96
- 42 Rothman R B, Baumann M H. Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant drugs. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003; 479 23-40
- 43 Homberg J R, Raaso H S, Schoffelmeer A NM, Vries T J de. Individual differences in sensitivity to factors provoking reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. Behav Brain Res. 2004; 152 157-161
- 44 Kalivas P W. Glutamate systems in cocaine addiction. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2004; 4 23-29
- 45 Heinemann A, Miyashi S, Iwersen S. et al . Body-packing as a cause of unexpected sudden death. Forensic Sci Int. 1998; 92 1-10
- 46 Lowenstein D H, Massa S M, Rowbotham M C. et al . Acute neurologic and psychiatric complications associated with cocaine abuse. Am J Med. 1987; 83 841-846
- 47 Ye J H, Liu P L, Wu W H, McArdle J J. Cocaine depresses GABAA current of hippocampal neurons. Brain Res. 1997; 770 169-175
- 48 Gasior M, Ungard J T, Witkin J M. Preclinical evaluation of newly approved and potential antiepileptic drugs against cocaine-induced seizures. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999; 290 1148-1156
- 49 Witkin J M, Gasior M, Heifets B, Tortella F C. Anticonvulsant efficacy of N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists against convulsions induced by cocaine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999; 289 703-711
- 50 Gasior M, Kaminski R, Witkin J M. Pharmacological modulation of GABAB receptors affects cocaine-induced seizures in mice. Psychopharmacology. 2004; 174 211-219
- 51 Johnson B A, Devous M D, Ruiz P, Ait-Daoud N. Treatment advances for cocaine-induced ischemic stroke: focus on dihydropyridine-class calcium channel antagonists. Am J Psychiatry. 2001; 158 1191-1198
- 52 Fessler R D, Esshaki C M, Stankewitz R C. et al . The neurovascular complications of cocaine. Surg Neurol. 1997; 47 339-345
- 53 Merkel P A, Koroshetz W J, Irizarry M C, Cudkowicz M E. Cocaine-associated cerebral vasculitis. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1995; 25 172-183
- 54 Aggarwal S K, Williams V, Levine S R. et al . Cocaine-associated intracranial hemorrhage: absence of vasculitis in 14 cases. Neurology. 1996; 46 1741-1743
- 55 Bartzokis G, Beckson M, Lu P H. et al . Age-related brain volume reductions in amphetamine and cocaine addicts and normal controls: implications for addiction research. Psychiatry Res. 2000; 98 93-102
- 56 Büttner A, Mall G, Penning R. et al . The neuropathology of cocaine abuse. Legal Med. 2003; 5 S240-S242
- 57 Cardoso F, Jankovic J. Movement disorders. Neurol Clin. 1993; 11 625-638
- 58 Daras M, Koppel B S, Atos-Radzion E. Cocaine-induced choreoathetoid movements („crack dancing”). Neurology. 1994; 44 751-752
- 59 Cardoso F, Jankovic J. Cocaine-related movement disorders. Mov Disord. 1993; 8 175-178
- 60 Richards J R. Rhabdomyolysis and drugs of abuse. J Emerg Med. 2000; 19 51-56
- 61 Martinsson L, Wahlgren N G. Safety of Dexamphetamine in acute ischemic stroke. A randomized, double-blind, controlled dose-escalation trial. Stroke. 2003; 34 475-481
- 62 White F J, Kalivas P W. Neuroadaptations involved in amphetamine and cocaine addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 141-153
- 63 Zagoni P G, Albano C. Psychostimulants and epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2002; 43 (Suppl 2) S28-S31
- 64 Selmi F, Davies K G, Sharma R R, Neal J W. Intracerebral haemorrhage due to amphetamine abuse: report of two cases with underlying arteriovenous malformations. Br J Neurosurg. 1995; 9 93-96
- 65 Buxton N, McConachie N S. Amphetamine abuse and intracranial haemorrhage. J R Soc Med. 2000; 93 472-477
- 66 Schiorring E. Psychopathology induced by „speed drugs”. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1981; 14 (Suppl 1) S109-S122
- 67 Hanson G R, Rau K S, Fleckenstein A E. The methamphetamine experience: a NIDA partnership. Neuropharmacology. 2004; 47 92-100
- 68 Davidson C, Gow A J, Lee T H, Ellinwood E H. Methamphetamine neurotoxicity: necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms and relevance to human abuse and treatment. Brain Res Rev. 2001; 36 1-22
- 69 Cadet J L, Jayanthi S, Deng X. Speed kills: cellular and molecular bases of methamphetamine-induced nerve terminal degeneration and neuronal apoptosis. FASEB J. 2003; 17 1775-1788
- 70 Perez Jr J A, Arsura E L, Strategos S. Methamphetamine-related stroke: four cases. J Emerg Med. 1999; 17 469-471
- 71 Wijaya J, Salu P, Leblanc A, Bervoets S. Acute unilateral visual loss due to a single intranasal methamphetamine abuse. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 1999; 271 19-25
- 72 Guilarte T R. Is methamphetamine abuse a risk factor in parkinsonism?. Neurotoxicology. 2001; 22 725-731
- 73 Moszczynska A, Fitzmaurice P, Ang L. et al . Why is parkinsonism not a feature of human methamphetamine users?. Brain. 2004; 127 363-370
- 74 Nordahl T E, Salo R, Leamon M. Neuropsychological effects of chronic methamphetamine use on neurotransmitters and cognition: a review. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2003; 15 317-325
- 75 Newton T F, Cook I A, Kalechstein A D. et al . Quantitative EEG abnormalities in recently abstinent methamphetamine dependent individuals. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003; 114 410-415
- 76 Nath A, Maragos W F, Avison M J. et al . Acceleration of HIV dementia with methamphetamine and cocaine. J Neurovirol. 2001; 7 66-71
- 77 Urbina A, Jones K. Crystal methamphetamine, its analogues, and HIV infection: medical and psychiatric aspects of a new epidemic. Clin Infect Dis. 2004; 38 890-894
- 78 Weir E. Raves: a review of the culture, the drugs and the prevention of harm. CMAJ. 2000; 162 1843-1848
- 79 Green A R, Mechan A O, Elliott J M. et al . The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, „Ecstasy”). Pharmacol Rev. 2003; 55 463-508
- 80 Kalant H. The pharmacology and toxicology of „ecstasy” (MDMA) and related drugs. CMAJ. 2001; 165 917-928
- 81 Gahlinger P M. Club drugs: MDMA gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), rohypnol, and ketamine. Am Fam Phys. 2004; 69 2619-2627
- 82 Jansen K LR. Ecstasy (MDMA) dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999; 53 121-124
- 83 Boyer E W, Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome. New Engl J Med. 2005; 352 1112-1120
- 84 Green A R, O'Shea E, Colado M I. A review or the mechanisms involved in the acute MDMA (ecstasy)-induced hyperthermic response. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004; 500 3-13
- 85 Henry J A, Jeffreys K J, Dawling S. Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine („ecstasy”). Lancet. 1992; 340 384-387
- 86 Holmes S B, Banerjee A K, Alexander W D. Hyponatraemia and seizures after ecstasy use. Postgrad Med J. 1999; 75 32-34
- 87 Burgess C, O'Donohoe A, Gill M. Agony and ecstasy: a review of MDMA effects and toxicity. Eur Psychiatry. 2000; 15 287-294
- 88 Hartung T K, Schofield E, Short A I. et al . Hyponatraemic states following 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, „Ecstasy”) ingestion. Q J Med. 2002; 95 431-437
- 89 Ben-Abraham R, Szold O, Rudick V, Weinbroum A A. „Ecstasy” intoxication: life-threatening manifestations and resuscitative measures in the intensive care setting. Eur J Emerg Med. 2003; 10 309-313
- 90 McEvoy A W, Kitchen N D, Thomas D G. Intracerebral haemorrhage and drug abuse in young adults. Br J Neurosurg. 2000; 14 449-454
- 91 Auer J, Berent R, Weber T. et al . Subarachnoid haemorrhage with „Ecstasy” abuse in a young adult. Neurol Sci. 2002; 23 199-201
- 92 Turner J JD, Parott A C. „Is MDMA a human neurotoxin?”: Diverse views from the discussants. Neuropsychobiology. 2000; 42 42-48
- 93 Ricaurte G A, Yuan J, Hatzidimitrou G. et al . Severe dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates after a common recreational dose regimen of MDMA („Ecstasy”). Science. 2002; 297 2260-2263 , Retraction: Science 2003; 301: 1479
- 94 Lyles J, Cadet J L. Methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) neurotoxicity: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Brain Res Rev. 2003; 42 155-168
- 95 Halpern J H, Pope Jr H G, Sherwood A R. et al . Residual neuropsychological effects of illicit 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in individuals with minimal exposure to other drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; 75 135-147
- 96 Lyvers M, Hasking P. Have Halpern et al. (2004) detected „residual neuropsychological effects” of MDMA? Not likely. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; 75 149-152
- 97 Sprague J E, Everman S L, Nichols D E. An integrated hypothesis for the serotonergic axonal loss induced by 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine. Neurotoxicology. 1998; 19 427-441
- 98 McCardle K, Luebbers S, Carter J D. et al . Chronic MDMA (ecstasy) use, cognition and mood. Psychopharmacology. 2004; 173 434-439
- 99 Freese T E, Miotto K, Reback C J. The effects and consequences of selected club drugs. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002; 23 151-156
- 100 Cole J C, Sumnall H R. Altered states: the clinical effects of ecstasy. Pharmacol Ther. 2003; 98 35-58
- 101 Vecellio M, Schopper C, Modestin J. Neuropsychiatric consequences (atypical psychosis and complex-partial seizures) of ecstasy use: possibile evidence for toxicity-vulnerability predictors and implications for preventive and clinical care. J Psychopharmacol. 2003; 17 342-345
- 102 Kish S J. What is the evidence that ecstasy (MDMA) can cause Parkinson's disease?. Mov Disord. 2003; 18 1219-1223
- 103 Refstad S. Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) poisoning: a „party drug” with lethal effect. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003; 47 1298-1299
- 104 Gschwandtner U, Aston J, Renaud S, Fuhr P. Pathologic gambling in patients with Parkinson's disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2001; 24 170-172
- 105 Lawrence A D, Evans A H, Lees A J. Compulsive use of dopamine replacement therapy in Parkinson's disease: reward systems gone awry?. Lancet Neurol. 2003; 2 595-604
- 106 Dodd M L, Klos K J, Bower J H. et al . Pathologic gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2005; 62 1301-1305
- 107 Allison C, Pratt J A. Neuroadaptive processes in GABAergic and glutamatergic systems in benzodiazepine dependence. Pharmacol Ther. 2003; 98 171-195
- 108 Gatzonis S D, Angelopoulos E KD, Askalopoulou E G. et al . Convulsive status epilepticus following abrupt high-dose benzodiazepine discontinuation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000; 59 95-97
- 109 Olnes M J, Golding A, Kaplan P W. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus resulting from benzodiazepine withdrawal. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139 956-958
- 110 Thomas P, Lebrun C, Chatel M. De novo absence status epilepticus as a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Epilepsia. 1993; 34 355-358
- 111 Druid H, Holmgren P, Ahlner J. Flunitrazepam: an evaluation of use, abuse, and toxicity. Forensic Sci Int. 2001; 122 136-141
- 112 Nicholson K L, Balster R L. GHB: a new and novel drug of abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001; 63 1-22
- 113 Wong C GT, Gibson K M, Snead 3rd O C. From the street to the brain: neurobiology of the recreational drug γ-hydroxybutyric acid. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2004; 25 29-34
- 114 Wong C G, Chan K F, Gibson K M, Snead 3rd O C. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: neurobiology and toxicology of a recreational drug. Toxicol Rev. 2004; 23 3-20
- 115 Snead 3rd O C, Gibson K M. γ-hydroxybutyric acid. New Engl J Med. 2005; 352 2721-2732
- 116 Wong C GT, Bottiglieri T, Snead 3rd O C. GABA, γ-hydroxybutyric acid, and neurological disease. Ann Neurol. 2003; 54 (Suppl 6) S3-S12
- 117 Li J, Stokes S A, Woeckener A. A tale of novel intoxication: seven cases of γ-hydroxybutyric acid overdose. Ann Emerg Med. 1998; 31 723-728
- 118 Dyer J E. γ-Hydroxybutyrate: a health-food product producing coma and seizure-like activity. Am J Emerg Med. 1991; 9 321-324
- 119 Chin M Y, Dyer J E. Acute poisoning from γ-hydroxybutyrate in California. West J Med. 1992; 156 380-384
- 120 Li J, Stokes S A, Woeckener A. A tale of novel intoxication: A review of the effects of γ-hydroxybutyric acid with recommendations for management. Ann Emerg Med. 1998; 31 729-736
- 121 Degenhardt L, Darke S, Dillon P. The prevalence and correlates of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) overdose among Australian users. Addiction. 2003; 98 199-204
- 122 Kam P CA, Yoong F FY. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: an emerging recreational drug. Anaesthesia. 1998; 53 1195-1198
- 123 Schwartz R H, Milteer R, LeBeau M A. Drug-facilitated sexual assault (date rape). Southern Med J. 2000; 93 558-561
- 124 Novak S J. Second thoughts on psychedelic drugs. Endeavour. 1998; 22 21-23
- 125 Marek G J, Aghajanian G K. Indoleamine and the phenethylamine hallucinogens: mechanisms of psychomimetic action. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 189-198
- 126
Nichols D E.
Hallucinogens.
Pharmacol Ther.
2004;
101
131-181
MissingFormLabel
- 127 Supprian T, Frey U, Supprian R. et al . Über den Gebrauch psychoaktiver Pilze als Rauschmittel. Fortschr Neurol Psychiat. 2001; 69 597-602
- 128 Halpern J H. Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States. Pharmacol Ther. 2004; 102 131-138
- 129 Aghajanian G K, Marek G J. Serotonin and hallucinogens. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999; 21 (Suppl 2) S16-S23
- 130 Halpern J H, Pope Jr H G. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: what do we know after 50 years?. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 69 109-119
- 131 Mangini M. Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998; 30 381-418
- 132 Halpern J H. Hallucinogens: an update. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2003; 5 347-354
- 133 Delgado P L, Moreno F A. Hallucinogens, serotonin and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998; 30 359-366
- 134 Farlow M R. NMDA receptor antagonists. A new therapeutic approach for Alzheimer's disease. Geriatrics. 2004; 59 22-27
- 135 Thanvi B R, Lo T C. Long-term motor complications of levodopa: clinical features, mechanisms, and management strategies. Postgrad Med J. 2004; 80 452-458
- 136 Lindahl J S, Keifer J. Glutamate receptor subunits are altered in forebrain and cerebellum in rats chronically exposed to the NMDA receptor antagonist phencyclidine. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004; 29 2065-2073
- 137 Jentsch J D, Roth R H. The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: from NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999; 20 201-225
- 138 Pestaner J P, Southall P E. Sudden death during arrest and phencyclidine intoxication. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2003; 24 119-122
- 139 Thaker G K, Carpenter Jr W T. Advances in schizophrenia. Nat Med. 2001; 6 667-671
- 140 Murray J B. Phencyclidine (PCP): a dangerous drug, but useful in schizophrenia research. J Psychol. 2002; 136 319-327
- 141 McCarron M M, Schulze B W, Thompson G A. et al . Acute phencyclidine intoxication: incidence of clinical findings in 1000 cases. Ann Emerg Med. 1981; 10 237-242
- 142 Reich D L, Silvay G. Ketamine: an update on the first twenty-five years of clinical experience. Can J Anaesth. 1989; 36 186-197
- 143 Petrenko A B, Yamakura T, Fujiwara N. et al . Reduced sensitivity to ketamine and pentobarbital in mice lacking the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor GluRε1 subunit. Anesth Analg. 2004; 99 1136-1140
- 144 Vry J De, Jentzsch K R. Role of the NMDA receptor NR2B subunit in the discriminative stimulus effects of ketamine. Behav Pharmacol. 2003; 14 229-235
- 145 Jansen K L, Darracot-Cankovic R. The nonmedical use of ketamine, part two: a review of problem use and dependence. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2001; 33 151-158
- 146 Balster R L. Neural basis of inhalant abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 207-214
- 147 Zimmermann M. Pathobiology of neuropathic pain. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001; 429 23-37
- 148 Fujinaga M, Maze M. Neurobiology of nitrous oxide-induced antinociceptive effects. Mol Neurobiol. 2002; 25 167-189
- 149 Aydin K, Sencer S, Ogel K. et al . Single-voxel proton MR spectroscopy in toluene abuse. Magn Reson Imaging. 2003; 21 777-785
- 150 Filley C M, Halliday W, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters B K. The effects of toluene on the central nervous system. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2004; 63 1-12
- 151 Anderson C E, Loomis G A. Recognition and prevention of inhalant abuse. Am Fam Physician. 2003; 68 869-874
- 152 Childers S R, Breivogel C S. Cannabis and endogenous cannabinoid systems. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998; 51 173-187
- 153 Ameri A. The effects of cannabinoids on the brain. Prog Neurobiol. 1999; 58 315-348
- 154 Devane W A, Dysarz 3rd F A, Johnson M R. et al . Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain. Mol Pharmacol. 1988; 34 605-613
- 155 Matsuda L A, Lolait S J, Brownstein M J. et al . Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of cloned DNA (cDNA). Nature. 1990; 346 561-564
- 156 Devane W A, Hanus L, Breuer A. et al . Isolation and structure of a brain constituant that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science. 1992; 258 1946-1949
- 157 Fride E. Endocannabinoids in the central nervous system - an overview. Prostagl Leukotr Essent Fatty Acids. 2002; 66 221-233
- 158 Baker D, Pryce G, Giovannoni G, Thompson A J. The therapeutic potential of cannabis. Lancet Neurol. 2003; 2 291-298
- 159 Howlett A C, Breivogel C S, Childers S R. et al . Cannabinoid physiology and pharmacology: 30 years of progress. Neuropharmacology. 2004; 47 345-358
- 160 Ashton C H. Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief overview. Br J Psychiatry. 2001; 178 101-106
- 161
Iversen L.
Cannabis and the brain.
Brain.
2003;
126
1252-1270
MissingFormLabel
- 162 Moussouttas M. Cannabis use and cerebrovascular disease. Neurologist. 2004; 10 47-53
- 163 Mateo I, Pinedo A, Gomez-Beldarrain M. et al . Recurrent stroke associated with cannabis use. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76 435-437
- 164 Tanda G, Goldberg S R. Cannabinoids: reward, dependence, and underlying neurochemical mechanisms - a review of recent preclinical data. Psychopharmacology. 2003; 169 115-134
- 165 Macleod J, Oakes R, Copello A. et al . Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: a systemic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet. 2004; 363 1579-1588
- 166 Lane S D, Cherek D R, Tcheremissine O V. et al . Acute marijuana effects on human risk taking. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005; 30 800-809
- 167
Veen N D, Selten J P, Tewel I van der. et al .
Cannabis use and age at onset of schizophrenia.
Am J Psychiatry.
2004;
161
501-506
MissingFormLabel
- 168 Drewe M, Drewe J, Riecher-Rössler A. Cannabis and risk of psychosis. Swiss Med Wkly. 2004; 134 659-663
- 169 Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J. et al . Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. BMJ. 2005; 330 11 , doi: DOI: 10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63 , (published 1 December 2004)
- 170 Favrat B, Menetrey A, Augsburger M. et al . Two cases of „cannabis acute psychosis” following the administration of oral cannabis. BMC Psychiatry. 2005; 5 17 , doi: DOI: 10.1186/1471-244X-5-17
- 171 Ralevic V. Cannabinoid modulation of peripheral autonomic and sensory neurotransmission. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003; 472 1-21
- 172 Zajicek J, Fox P, Sanders H. et al . Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003; 362 1517-1526
- 173 Gorter R W, Butorac M, Cobian E P, Sluis W van der. Medical use of cannabis in the Netherlands. Neurology. 2005; 64 917-919
- 174 Chen K, Ratzliff A, Hilgenberg L. et al . Long-term plasticity of endocannabinoid-signaling induced by developmental febrile seizures. Neuron. 2003; 39 599-611
- 175 Wallace M J, Blair R E, Falenski K W. et al . The endogenous cannabinoid system regulates seizure frequency and duration in a model of temporal lobe epilepsy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003; 307 129-137
- 176 Panikashvili D, Simeonidou C, Ben-Shabat S. et al . An endogenous cannabinoid (2-AG) is neuroprotective after brain injury. Nature. 2001; 413 527-531
- 177 Pryce G, Ahmed Z, Hankey D JR. et al . Cannabinoids inhibit neurodegeneration in models of multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2003; 126 2191-2202
- 178 Black S C. Cannabinoid receptor antagonists and obesity. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2004; 5 389-394
- 179 Fernandez J R, Allison D B. Rimonabant Sanofi-Synthélabo. Curr Opin Invest Drugs. 2004; 5 430-435
Dr. med. Stephan Rüegg
Abt. f. klinische Neurophysiologie · Neurologische Klinik · Universitätsspital
Petersgraben 4
4031 Basel · Schweiz
Email: srueegg@uhbs.ch