Introduction
Introduction
Type 2 diabetes is one of the most challenging health problems in the 21st century
both in developed and developing countries. It is among the leading causes of death
and diabetic macro- and microvascular complications are resulting in increased disability
and enormous health care costs [1]. The number of people with diabetes is increasing due to aging of the population
and increased prevalence of obesity and physical inactivity [2]. In the European Region, an average total diabetes prevalence of 7.8 % in the adult
population (20 - 79 years) or 48.4 million persons has been estimated in 2003 [1]. This high prevalence is partly a consequence of the relatively old population compared
to other regions worldwide. Currently, about one third of the European population
is over 50 years of age, which is expected to increase to over 40 % by 2025 [1]. Therefore, without effective prevention programs, diabetes prevalence in Europe
is expected to increase to 9.1 % or 58.6 millions in 2025 as estimated by the International
Diabetes Federation [1]. This increase will place an enormous financial burden on a declining working age
population in Europe.
Despite the increasing prevalence and the human and economic burden, valid epidemiological
data on type 2 diabetes in the elderly population is scarce in the European Region
[3]. While infectious diseases are carefully monitored, this non-communicable disease
is not continuously assessed [3]. A mapping and comparative analysis of type 2 diabetes and its precursor, impaired
glucose regulation (IGR), using standardized methods is lacking in Europe. The aim
of this review is to evaluate population-based data on type 2 diabetes and IGR prevalence
from surveys carried out since 1990 in Western Europe, and to discuss the possible
impact of risk factors on geographic variation, in particular, obesity and physical
activity.
Methods
Methods
The gold standard to evaluate type 2 diabetes and IGR prevalence in the elderly population
is the OGTT (oral glucose tolerance test)-based investigation of a representative
sample. Inclusion criteria for the current review were (1) population-based surveys
for diabetes using both fasting and 2 h glucose values after a standard 75 g OGTT
on all participants without known diabetes, (2) surveys from Western European countries,
(3) age group above 50 years both including men and women, and (4) surveys which have
been carried out after 1990 to control for possible secular trends of prevalence.
In case that several comparable surveys have been carried out in the same country
the most recent was chosen. Due to a large variation of age-strata and laboratory
methods in the original publications, data were largely obtained from a recent meta-analysis
of European studies (DECODE Study; Diabetes epidemiology: collaborative analysis of
diagnostic criteria in Europe) [4]. Glucose concentrations were all transformed to plasma glucose concentrations [4]. In Germany, only one study fulfilled the inclusion criteria. In the KORA Survey
S4 (1999/2001), OGTT were carried out in a random sample of 1353 subjects aged 55
to 74 years in the Augsburg region [5]. Age- and sex-specific prevalences of diabetes and IGR were given according to the
1999 WHO criteria [6]. Thus, classification of diabetes was based on both fasting and 2 h plasma glucose.
According to the WHO recommendations IGR is either impaired glucose tolerance (IGT)
or impaired fasting glucose (IFG). IGT was defined as 2 h plasma glucose between 140
to 199 mg/dl and fasting glucose below 126 mg/dl. Fasting plasma glucose concentrations
between 110 and 125 mg/dl and 2 h glucose < 140 mg/dl were classified as IFG. In the
KORA Survey, prevalences were calculated accounting for sample design to provide representative
population estimates [5].
Results
Results
The age- and sex-specific prevalences of total diabetes (known and newly diagnosed)
and IGR from the KORA Survey S4 (1999/2001), Germany, and 13 other European population-based
studies (DECODE meta-analysis) combined are given in Table [1]. In the KORA Survey, the age range was limited to 55 to 74 years (DECODE: 50 to
79 years).
Table 1 Prevalence of total diabetes and impaired glucose regulation (IGR) in the elderly
population: KORA Survey S4 (1999/2001) (Augsburg), Germany, and DECODE meta-analysis
of 13 European studies
|
|
KORA survey |
DECODE study3
|
|
55 - 59 years |
60 - 69 years |
70 - 74 years |
50 - 59 years |
60 - 69 years |
70 - 79 years |
| Total diabetes[1] (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| men |
16.6* |
18.1 |
23.1 |
10.1* |
15.5 |
23.4* |
| women |
8.6* |
16.7 |
17.0 |
7.8* |
16.1 |
27.3* |
| IGR2 (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| men |
18.1 |
30.2* |
29.2 |
19.2* |
21.2* |
24.8 |
| women |
12.6 |
22.4* |
25.5 |
14.3* |
19.0* |
29.6 |
|
1known and newly diagnosed diabetes (OGTT) 2 impaired glucose tolerance or impaired
fasting glucose (1999 WHO) 3 The DECODE Study Group. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 61-69*
p < 0.05 for sex differences
|
In the Augsburg survey and most of the other European studies, half of total diabetes
cases were previously undiagnosed. Total diabetes prevalence (known and undiagnosed)
increased with age in both sexes, comprising about one quarter of the population in
the age group 70 to 79 years in the DECODE meta-analysis (Table [1]). In the decade below 60 years of age, about 10 % of the population had known or
newly diagnosed diabetes. IGR prevalences also increased with age, reaching a maximum
of 25 % (men) to 30 % (women) in the age-group 70 to 79 years. Significant sex differences
were found for diabetes prevalence in the DECODE data. Whereas the prevalence was
significantly higher in men than in women aged 50 to 59 years, a larger proportion
of women suffered from diabetes in the age group above 70 years. Up to 70 years, also
IGR was more frequent in elderly men than in women in the DECODE analysis.
The age- and sex-specific prevalences for total diabetes observed in the Augsburg
region were largely comparable to the DECODE European average estimates, taking into
account the different age ranges (Table [1]). Similar to the DECODE data, diabetes prevalence was significantly higher in men
than in women aged 55 to 59 years, whereas in elderly participants above 70 years
of age no significant sex difference was observed. IGR prevalences in the KORA data
were also higher in men than in women up to 70 years of age, however, which was statistically
significant in the age-group 60 - 69 years only (p < 0.01). It is noteworthy, that
in subjects aged 60 to 69 years, IGR prevalence was higher in the KORA Survey than
the average estimate from the DECODE Study, in particular, among men.
After applying the current inclusion criteria to the surveys, six population-based
studies were selected for detailed comparisons (Sweden, U.K., Germany, the Netherlands,
Italy, Spain). Their basic demographic data and participation (%) are given in Table
[2]. In most surveys, proportion of females was higher among participants. Overall,
participation ranged from 62 to 93 %. Due to different age-strata used in the various
publications, comparisons of total diabetes and IGR prevalences were limited to the
age-group 60 to 69 years. This age group covers the largest number of subjects with
glucose disorders in most European populations.
Table 2 Description of population-based studies on diabetes in the elderly population in Western
Europe from 1990: DECODE Study and KORA Survey S4 (1999/2001)
| study |
mean age (range) |
participants, n (%) |
men (%) |
years of survey |
location |
| MONICA, Sweden |
52 (30 - 74) |
903 (62) |
48 |
1994 |
suburban |
| Hoorn, Netherlands |
62 (50 - 77) |
2 364 (71) |
46 |
1989 - 91 |
urban |
| Newcastle, U.K. |
55 (30 - 76) |
778 (91) |
52 |
1992 - 94 |
urban |
| KORA, Germany |
64 (55 - 74) |
1 485 (62) |
47 |
1999 - 01 |
urban and rural |
| Cremona, Italy |
58 (40 - 89) |
1 672 (87) |
44 |
1990 - 91 |
urban |
| Catalonia, Spain |
54 (30 - 89) |
1 835 (93) |
42 |
1994 |
urban |
In Table [3], a ranking of diabetes and IGR prevalences in men and women is given for the six
surveys. In both sexes, a wide variation of diabetes and IGR frequencies was found
in European studies. Variation was about 2fold for diabetes and 2 - 3fold for IGR
prevalence. Both in men and women, the highest total diabetes prevalences were found
in Catalonia (Spain) and in Augsburg (Germany). The lowest diabetes prevalence was
observed in the Dutch Study (Hoorn). IGR prevalences were highest both in men and
women in the surveys from Newcastle, Augsburg, and Catalonia. Again, estimates from
the Dutch survey were substantially lower than in Augsburg. Thus, there appears to
be a wide variation of diabetes and IGR prevalence in Western Europe. However, no
clear geographical pattern could be found (i. e. north-south gradient).
Table 3 Sex-specific ranking of total diabetes (known and newly diagnosed) and impaired glucose
regulation (IGR) prevalences in Western European population-based surveys in the age
group 60 - 69 years
diabetes prevalence
men |
% |
women |
% |
IGR prevalence
men |
% |
women |
% |
| Catalonia, Spain |
18.6 |
Catalonia, Spain |
25.3 |
Newcastle, U.K |
39.6 |
Catalonia, Spain |
24.6 |
| Cremona, Italy |
18.2 |
KORA1, Germany |
16.7 |
KORA1, Germany |
30.2 |
Newcastle, U.K |
24.5 |
| KORA[1], Germany |
18.1 |
MONICA, Sweden |
14.3 |
Catalonia, Spain |
28.1 |
KORA1, Germany |
22.4 |
| Newcastle, U.K. |
17.1 |
Newcastle, U.K. |
13.9 |
Hoorn, Netherlands |
21.7 |
Hoorn, Netherlands |
18.0 |
| MONICA, Sweden |
13.9 |
Cremona, Italy |
13.0 |
MONICA, Sweden |
17.1 |
MONICA, Sweden |
17.1 |
| Hoorn, Netherlands |
10.7 |
Hoorn, Netherlands |
12.5 |
Cremona, Italy |
12.2 |
Cremona, Italy |
12.7 |
|
IGR: impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose (1999 WHO criteria) 1
survey S4 (1999/2001)
|
Discussion
Discussion
There is a wide variation of total diabetes prevalence in the elderly population in
Western European countries without clear geographical pattern. Another recent study
using European sentinel practice networks in eight countries confirms a two-fold range
of prevalence of known diabetes, however, did not include Scandinavian countries and
Germany [7].
Age, obesity, physical activity, nutrition, and genetic predisposition are relevant
factors influencing diabetes prevalence in a population [8]. There are large differences in risk factors like obesity, diet, and sedentary lifestyle
at the population level in Western Europe. Germany and the Netherlands are neighboring
countries, whose populations largely share a similar genetic background. Nevertheless,
there is a wide variation in diabetes prevalence in the elderly population, which
was almost two-fold higher in Germany than in the Netherlands. This large difference
is most likely still existing although the Dutch survey was carried out a decade earlier
than the KORA Study. Prevalence of obesity, defined as BMI equal or above 30 kg/m2, is about two-fold higher in Germany (23 %) than in the Netherlands (12 %) [9]
[10].
Among 15 member states of the EU, Dutch participants also reported the highest total
physical activity in a recent survey [11]. A sedentary lifestyle is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes. A lower prevalence
of sedentary lifestyles was found in northern European countries, in particular, in
Scandinavia, as compared with southern countries, especially the Mediterranean area
[12]. A recent European survey, using an internationally validated questionnaire, confirmed
higher prevalences of physical activity (recreation, sport, leisure-time activities)
in the Netherlands and in Sweden than in Spain and Germany, corresponding to differences
in diabetes prevalences found in the present study [13]. Therefore, the level of physical activity in a population could be an important
predictor of diabetes prevalence.
Obesity and anthropometric measures like waist circumference also showed considerable
variation within Western Europe [14]
[15]. In particular, increased waist circumference has been found to predict type 2 diabetes
[14]. Interestingly, in the EPIC study, highest values for waist circumference were observed
in populations from southern Europe, in particular, Spain and Italy, corresponding
to the high diabetes prevalences found in population-based surveys [15].
Finally, there is a marked variation in nutrition in Western Europe, from timing of
meals to the composition of foods [16]. The fatty acid composition of the diet is important in the development of type
2 diabetes [17]. A high intake of saturated fatty acids has been associated with an increased risk
of progression to diabetes from IGT [17]. A north-south divide in nutrition is found in Europe: half of the dietary fatty
acids in the south are monounsaturated whereas in the north, saturated fatty acids
almost approach this proportion [16].
Thus, more comparative studies of type 2 diabetes and the predictive values of obesity,
physical activity, and nutritional factors in the European population are of interest
in the future. The effect of lifestyle factors may differ in various populations,
and it will also be of interest, how risk factors like diet and physical activity
interact with genetic markers.
Differences in body mass index within European populations only partly explain the
large variation in diabetes prevalence [8]. It has been suggested that variation in diabetes prevalence between European OGTT-based
surveys may partly be due to methodological differences in participation (selection
bias) and in preanalytical and analytical study conditions with respect to the oral
glucose tolerance test (i. e. physical activity, diet, smoking prior to OGTT; handling
of glucose samples) [8]. Thus, it is conceivable that in fact existing geographic patterns of total type
2 diabetes prevalence in Europe could not be detected so far due to considerable misclassification
of glucose tolerance groups in various surveys. Activities like the WHO MONICA project
have provided evidence that regional variation in prevalence of a common non-communicable
disease and its risk factors can successfully be monitored using standardized methods
[14]. Thus, there is an urgent need for a standardized evaluation of type 2 diabetes
prevalence in the whole European region, given the rising prevalence and enormous
burden for the individual and the society.
Future planning
Future planning
The KORA Survey S4 (1999/2001) included the first OGTT-based study on prevalence of
undiagnosed diabetes and IGR in the elderly population in Germany. The prevalence
of impaired glucose regulation (IGT and IFG) in Augsburg in the age group 60 to 69
years was higher than the European average found in the DECODE study. IGR is a strong
risk factor for the future development of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease
[15]. In the Dutch Hoorn study, the five-year cumulative incidence of diabetes in participants
with IGT was 33.8 % and in subjects with additional IFG (fasting glucose 110 - 125
mg/dl) up to 65 % [15]. Thus, there is a huge reservoir for future diabetes cases in the elderly population
in Germany. It has been estimated, that in 2000 in the age group 55 to 74 years about
3 million Germans had IGT, of whom a substantial number will develop diabetes within
the next years [5]. Therefore, it is planned that all KORA Survey S4 (1999/2001) participants shall
be invited for the F4 follow-up study in 2006/2007 (Institute of Biometrics and Epidemiology,
German Diabetes Center, and Institute of Epidemiology, GSF). The aim is to evaluate
for the first time the age- and sex-specific diabetes incidence and mortality (all-cause
and cardiovascular) in a well-defined German population based on OGTT. These estimates
will provide valuable information to estimate the extent of the future diabetes epidemic
in the elderly population. Also for the first time a prospective study cohort of OGTT-based
incident cases will be available for Germany, which is the preferred observational
epidemiological study design for making causal inferences. Prospective studies on
diabetes incidence are rare in Europe. Therefore, relevant future analyses of genetic
and non-genetic risk factors of type 2 diabetes including their possible interactions
will be possible [19].
Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
The investigation has been supported by the GSF and the BMGS - Federal Ministry of
Health and Social Security, the Ministry of School, Science, and Research of the State
of North-Rhine-Westfalia and the Anna Wunderlich-Ernst Jühling Foundation.
The authors are indebted to K. Papke (head of KORA Study Center) and B. Schwertner
(survey organization) and their coworkers for organizing and conducting the data collection.
We also thank all participants of the OGTT study.
The article refers specifically to the following contribution of this special issue
of Das Gesundheitswesen: [19 20, 22 31].
