Therapy of Hyperthyroidism

K. Miehle; R. Paschke

doi:10.1055/s-2003-42719

Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes, Table of Contents

Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2003; 111(6): 305-318
DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-42719

Review

J. A. Barth Verlag in Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart · New York

Therapy of Hyperthyroidism

K. Miehle¹ , R. Paschke¹

¹III. Medical Department, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany

Abstract

Hyperthyroidism is a common disorder and affects approximately 2 % of women and 0.2 % of men. The review focuses on the therapy of overt hyperthyroidism with special emphasis on treatment strategies in Germany and Europe. Current treatment schedules for the different causes of hyperthyroidism are described and new therapeutic aspects are discussed. Special sections deal with the treatment of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy, neonates and children, and the treatment of thyrotoxic storm.

Key words

Graves' disease - thyroid autonomy - antithyroid drugs - surgery - radioiodine

Full Text

References

1 Anonymous. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists releases clinical guidelines for thyroid disease. Am Fam Physician. 1995; 51 679-680
2 Adewuyi J, Sigola L B, Keogh E. African neutropaenia in Zimbabwe. Cent Afr J Med. 1994; 40 108-110
3 Administration of Radioactive Substances Advisory Committee .Notes for Guidance on the Administration of Radioactive Substances to Persons for Purposes of Diagnosis, Treatment, or Research. London; Department of Health ARSAC Secretariat 1993
4 Alexander W D, Beckers C, Becker A, Lazarus J, Krenning E, Schlumberger, Williams D. Iodine 131 Therapy for Thyrotoxicosis towards 2000. Report of the European Thyroid Association Committee on Radio Iodine Therapy in Thyrotoxicosis. Belgium; Mallinckrodt Medical 1995
5 Alexander W D, Evans V, Macaulay A, Gallagher T FJ, Londono J. Metabolism of 35 S - labelled antithyroid drugs in man. Br Med J. 1969; 2 290-291
6 Allanic H, Fauchet R, Orgiazzi J. Antithyroid drugs and Graves' disease: a prospective randomised evaluation of the efficacy of treatment duration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990; 70 675-679
7 Andrade V A, Gross J L, Maia A L. The effect of methimazole pretreatment on the efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' hyperthyroidism: one-year follow-up of a prospective, randomized study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 86 3488-3493
8 Arbelle J E, Porath A. Practice guidelines for the detection and management of thyroid dysfunction. A comparative review of the recommendations. Clin Endocrinol. 1999; 51 11-18
9 Arem R. Recurrent transient thyrotoxicosis in multinodular goitre. Postgrad Med J. 1990; 66 54-56
10 Astwood E B. Chemotherapy of hyperthyroidism. Häarvey Lect (Abstract). 1945; 40 195-235
11 Astwood E B, van der Laan W P. Thiouracil derivates of greater activity for the treatment of hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol. 1945; 5 424-430
12 Azizi F. Environmental iodine intake affects the response to methimazole in patients with diffuse toxic goiter. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985; 61 374-377
13 Azizi F, Khoshinat M, Bahrainian M, Hedayati M. Thyroid function and intellectual development of infants nursed by mothers taking methimazole. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000; 85 3233-3238
14 Bähre M, Hilgers R, Lindemann C, Emrich D. Thyroid autonomy: sensitive detection in vivo and estimation of its functional relevance using quantified high-resolution scintigraphy. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1988; 117 145-153
15 Baltisberger B L, Minder C E, Burgi H. Decrease of incidence of toxic nodular goitre in a region of Switzerland after full correction of mild iodine deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol. 1995; 132 546-549
16 Banga J P, Harris P E. Potential pathogenicity of autoantibodies to thyrotropin receptor in treated, euthyroid patients with Graves' disease. Eur Journal Endocrinol. 1998; 139 139-142
17 Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Grasso L, Bogazzi F, Burelli A, Martino E. Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis, a difficult challenge: results of a prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996; 81 2930-2933
18 Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Manetti L, Tanda M L, Dell'Unto E, Bruno-Bossio G, Nardi M, Bartolomei M P, Lepri A, Rossi G, Martino E, Pinchera A. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med. 1998; 338 73-78
19 Bay V, Engel U, Zornig C. Technics and complications in reinterventions on the thyroid. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1988; 100 352-354
20 Benbassat C A, Mechlis-Frish S, Cohen M, Blum I. Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis type 2: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Med Sci. 2000; 320 288-291
21 Benker G, Reinwein D, Kahaly G, Tegler L, Alexander W D, Fassbinder J, Hirche H. Is there a methimazole dose effect on remission rate in Graves' disease? Results from a long-term prospective study. The European Multicentre Trial Group of the Treatment of Hyperthyroidism with Antithyroid Drugs. Clin Endocrinol. 1998; 49 451-457
22 Benker G, Vitti P, Kahaly G, Raue F, Tegler L, Hirche H, Reinwein D. Response to methimazole in Graves' disease. The European Multicenter Study Group. Clin Endocrinol. 1995; 43 257-263
24 Buerklin E M, Schimmel M, Utiger R D. Pituitary-thyroid regulation in euthyroid patients with Graves' disease previously treated with antithyroid drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1976; 43 419-427
25 Burch H B, Solomon B L, Cooper D S, Ferguson P, Walpert N, Howard R. The effect of antithyroid drug pretreatment on acute changes in thyroid hormone levels after (131) I ablation for Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 86 3016-3021
26 Chambers J BJ, Pittman C S, Suda A K. The effects of propranolol on thyroxine metabolism and triiodothyronines production in man. J Clin Pharmacol. 1982; 22 110-116
27 Chazenbalk G D, Pichurin P, McLachlan S M, Rapoport B. A direct binding assay for thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies. Thyroid. 1999; 9 1057-1061
28 Chopra I J. A study of extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine (T4) to 3, 3′0, 5-triiodothyronine (T3) in vitro. Endocrinology. 1977; 101 453-463
29 Codaccioni J L, Orgiazzi J, Blanc P, Pugeat M, Roulier R, Carayon P. Lasting remissions in patients treated for Graves' hyperthyroidism with propranolol alone: a pattern of spontaneous evolution of the disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988; 67 656-662
30 Cooper D S. Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med. 1984; 311 1353-1362
31 Cooper D S. Treatment of thyrotoxicosis. Braverman LE, Utiger RD Werner and Ingbar's the Thyroid. 8th ed. Philadelphia; Lippincott Williams & Wilkin 2000: 691-715
32 Dahlberg P A, Karlsson F A, Jansson R, Wide L. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone testing during antithyroid drug treatment of Graves' disease as an indicator of remission. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985; 61 1100-1104
33 Davies T F. The pathogenesis of Graves' disease. Braverman LE, Utiger RD Werner and Ingbar's the Thyroid. 7th ed. Philadelphia; Lippincott-Raven 1996: 525-536
34 Davis L E, Lucas M J, Hankins G D, Roark M L, Cunningham F G. Thyrotoxicosis complicating pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989; 160 63-70
35 De Bruin T W, Croon C D, De Klerk J M, Van Isselt J W. Standardized radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease: the persistent effect of thyroid weight and radioiodine uptake on outcome. J Intern Med. 1994; 236 507-513
36 De Bruin T WA, Bolk J H, Bussemaker J K, Stijnen T, Schreuder G MT, Devries R RP, Van Der Heide D. Graves' disease: immunological and immunogenetic indicators of relapse. Br Med J. 1988; 296 1292-1295
37 Dietlein M, Dressler J, Joseph K, Leisner B, Moser E, Reiners C, Schicha H, Schneider P, Schober O. Guidelines for radioiodine therapy (RIT) in benign thyroid diseases. Nuklearmedizin. 1999; 38 (6 A) 219-220
38 Dumont J E, Lamy F, Roger P, Maenhaut C. Physiological and pathological regulation of thyroid cell proliferation and differentiation by thyrotropin and other factors. Physiol Rev. 1992; 72 667-697
39 Duprez L, Parma J, Van Sande J, Allgeier A, Leclere J, Schvartz C, Delisle M J, Decoulx M, Orgiazzi J, Dumont J. Germline mutations in the thyrotropin receptor gene cause non-autoimmune autosomal dominant hyperthyroidism. Nat Genet. 1994; 7 396-401
40 Emrich D, Bähre M. Autonomy in euthyroid goitre: maladaptation to iodine deficiency. Clin Endocrinol. 1978; 8 257-265
41 Engel U, Zornig C. The necessity of intraoperative identification of the contralateral lobe in “struma uninodosa”. Chirurg. 1990; 61 454-455
42 Erickson D, Gharib H, Li H, Van Heerden J A. Treatment of patients with toxic multinodular goiter. Thyroid. 1998; 8 277-282
43 Evans P M, Webster J, Evans W D, Bevan J S, Scanlon M F. Radioiodine treatment in unsuspected pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol. 1998; 48 281-283
44 Eyre-Brook I A, Talbot C H. The treatment of autonomous functioning thyroid nodules. Br J Surg. 1982; 69 577-579
45 Farwell A P, Abend S L, Huang S K, Patwardhan N A, Braverman L E. Thyroidectomy for amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. JAMA. 1990; 263 1526-1528
46 Feldt-Rasmussen U, Schleusener H, Carayon P. Meta-analysis evaluation of the impact of thyrotropin receptor antibodies on long term remission after medical therapy of Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994; 78 98-102
47 Ferrari C, Reschini E, Paracchi A. Treatment of the autonomous thyroid nodule: a review. Eur J Endocrinol. 1996; 135 383-390
48 Franklyn J A, Daykin J, Drolc Z, Farmer M, Sheppard M C. Long-term follow-up of treatment of thyrotoxicosis by three different methods. Clin Endocrinol. 1991; 34 71-76
49 Franklyn J A, Wilkins M R, Wilkinson R, Ramsden D B, Sheppard M C. The effect of propranolol on circulating thyroid hormone measurements in thyrotoxic and euthyroid subjects. Acta Endocrinol. 1985; 108 351-355
50 Führer D, Mix M, Willgerodt H, Holzapfel H P, Von Petrykowski W, Wonerow P, Paschke R. Autosomal dominant nonautoimmune hyperthyroidism. Clinical features-diagnosis-therapy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 1998; 106 (Suppl 4) S10-S15
51 Fukata S, Kuma K, Sugawara M. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) does not improve recovery from antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis: a prospective study. Thyroid. 1999; 9 29-31
52 Geffner D L, Azukizawa M, Hershman J M. Propylthiouracil blocks extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine and augments thyrotropin secretion in man. J Clin Invest. 1975; 55 224-229
53 Gemsenjäger E. The surgical treatment of autonomous nodular goiter. Prospective long-term study. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1992; 122 687-692
54 Gittoes N J, Franklyn J A. Hyperthyroidism. Current treatment guidelines. Drugs. 1998; 55 543-553
55 Glinoer D, Hesch D, Lagasse R, Laurberg P. The management of hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease in Europe in 1986. Results of an international survey. Acta Endocrinol Suppl. 1987; 285 3-23
56 Goolden A W, Fraser T R. Effect of pretreatment with carbimazole in patients with thyrotoxicosis subsequently treated with radioactive iodine. Br Med J. 1969; 3 443-444
57 Greer M A, Kammer H, Bouma D J. Short-term antithyroid drug therapy for the thyrotoxicosis of Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 1977; 297 173-176
58 Hamburger J L. Management of hyperthyroidism in children and adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985; 64 1019-1024
59 Hancock L D, Tuttle R M, Lemar H, Bauman J, Patience T. The effect of propylthiouracil on subsequent radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol. 1997; 47 425-430
60 Hashizume K, Ichikawa K, Sakurai A, Suzuki S, Takeda T, Kobayashi M, Miyamoto T, Arai M, Nagasawa T. Administration of thyroxine in treated Graves' disease. Effects on the level of antibodies to thyroid-stimulating hormone receptors and on the risk of recurrence of hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med. 1991; 324 947-953
61 Hedley A J, Young R E, Jones S J, Alexander W D, Bewsher P D. Antithyroid drugs in the treatment of hyperthyroidism of Graves' disease: long-term follow-up of 434 patients. Scottish Automated Follow-Up Register Group. Clin Endocrinol. 1989; 31 209-218
62 Hegedus L, Perrild H, Poulsen L R, Andersen J R, Holm B, Schnohr P, Jensen G, Hansen J M. The determination of thyroid volume by ultrasound and its relationship to body weight, age, and sex in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983; 56 260-263
63 Helfand M, Redfern C C. Clinical guideline, part 2. Screening for thyroid disease: an update. American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 1998; 129 144-158
64 Henderson J M, Portmann L, Van Melle G, Haller E, Ghika J A. Propranolol as an adjunct therapy for hyperthyroid tremor. Eur Neurol. 1997; 37 182-185
65 Hennemann G, Krenning E P, Sankaranarayanan K. Place of radioactive iodine in treatment of thyrotoxicosis. Lancet. 1986; 1 1369-1372
66 Herman J, Resnitzky P, Fink A. Association between thyrotoxicosis and thrombocytopenia. A case report and review of the literature. Isr J Med Sci. 1978; 14 469-475
67 Holm L E, Hall P, Wiklund K, Lundell G, Berg G, Bjelkengren G, Cederquist E, Ericsson U B, Hallquist A, Larsson L G. Cancer risk after iodine-131 therapy for hyperthyroidism. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1991; 83 1072-1077
68 Holm L E, Lundell G, Israelsson A, Dahlqvist I. Incidence of hypothyroidism occurring long after iodine-131 therapy for hyperthyroidism. J Nucl Med. 1982; 23 103-107
69 Holzapfel H P, Führer D, Wonerow P, Weinland G, Scherbaum W A, Paschke R. Identification of constitutively activating somatic thyrotropin receptor mutations in a subset of toxic multinodular goiters. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 a; 82 4229-4233
70 Holzapfel H P, Wonerow P, Von Petrykowski W, Henschen M, Scherbaum W A, Paschke R. Sporadic congenital hyperthyroidism due to a spontaneous germline mutation in the thyrotropin receptor gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 b; 82 3879-3884
71 Homsanit M, Sriussadaporn S, Vannasaeng S, Peerapatdit T, Nitiyanant W, Vichayanrat A. Efficacy of single daily dosage of methimazole vs. propylthiouracil in the induction of euthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol. 2001; 54 385-390
72 Jackson I M. Management of thyrotoxicosis. J Maine Med Assoc. 1975; 66 224-232
73 Jensen M D, Gharib H, Naessens J M, Van Heerden J A, Mayberry W E. Treatment of toxic multinodular goiter (Plummer's disease): surgery or radioiodine?. World J Surg. 1986; 10 673-680
74 Kalb R E, Grossman M E. The association of aplasia cutis congenita with therapy of maternal thyroid disease. Pediatr Dermatol. 1986; 3 327-330
75 Kampmann J, Skovsted L. The pharmacokinetics of propylthiouracil. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol. 1974; 35 361-369
76 Kampmann J P, Hansen J M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of antithyroid drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1981; 6 401-428
77 Kendall-Taylor P, Keir M J, Ross W M. Ablative radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism: long-term follow-up study. Br Med J (Clinical research ed. ). 1984; 289 361-363
78 Kraiem Z, Glaser B, Yigla M, Pauker J, Sadeh O, Sheinfeld M. Toxic multinodular goiter: a variant of autoimmune hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987 a; 65 659-664
79 Kraiem Z, Lahat N, Glaser B, Baron E, Sadeh O, Sheinfeld M. Thyrotrophin receptor blocking antibodies: incidence, characterization and in-vitro synthesis. Clin Endocrinol. 1987 b; 27 409-421
80 Krohn K, Führer D, Holzapfel H P, Paschke R. Clonal origin of toxic thyroid nodules with constitutively activating thyrotropin receptor mutations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998; 83 130-134
81 Krohn K, Wohlgemuth S, Gerber H, Paschke R. Hot microscopic areas of iodine-deficient euthyroid goitres contain constitutively activating TSH receptor mutations. J Pathol. 2000; 192 37-42
82 Kung A W, Jones B M. A change from stimulatory to blocking antibody activity in Graves' disease during pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998; 83 514-518
83 Laurberg P, Buchholtz H P, Iversen E, Eskjaer J S, Weeke J. Goitre size and outcome of medical treatment of Graves' disease. Acta Endocrinol. 1986; 111 39-43
84 Laurberg P, Nohr S B, Pedersen K M, Hreidarsson A B, Andersen S, Bulow P I, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Jorgensen T, Ovesen L. Thyroid disorders in mild iodine deficiency. Thyroid. 2000; 10 951-963
85 Laurberg P, Nygaard B, Glinoer D, Grussendorf M, Orgiazzi J. Guidelines for TSH-receptor antibody measurements in pregnancy: results of an evidence-based symposium organized by the European Thyroid Association. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998; 139 584-586
86 Laurberg P, Pedersen K M, Vestergaard H, Sigurdsson G. High incidence of multinodular toxic goitre in the elderly population in a low iodine intake area vs. high incidence of Graves' disease in the young in a high iodine intake area: comparative surveys of thyrotoxicosis epidemiology in East-Jutland Denmark and Iceland. J Intern Med. 1991; 229 415-420
87 Lazarus J H. Guidelines for the use of radioiodine in the management of hyperthyroidism: a summary. Prepared by the Radioiodine Audit Subcommittee of the Royal College of Physicians Committee on Diabetes and Endocrinology, and the Research Unit of the Royal College of Physicians. J R Coll Physicians Lond. 1995; 29 464-469
88 Lazarus J H, Marchant B, Alexander W D, Clark D H. 35-S-antithyroid drug concentration and organic binding of iodine in the human thyroid. Clin Endocrinol. 1975; 4 609-615
89 Lederbogen S, Reinwein D. Epidemiologische Daten zur thyreotoxischen Krise, eine retrospektive Untersuchung. Akt Endokrinol Stoffw. 1992; 13 62-84
90 Linos D A, Karakitsos D, Papademetriou J. Should the primary treatment of hyperthyroidism be surgical?. Eur J Surg. 1997; 163 651-657
91 Lippi F, Ferrari C, Manetti L, Rago T, Santini F, Monzani F, Bellitti P, Papini E, Busnardo B, Angelini F, Pinchera A. Treatment of solitary autonomous thyroid nodules by percutaneous ethanol injection: results of an Italian multicenter study. The Multicenter Study Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996; 81 3261-3264
92 LiVolsi V A. The pathology of autoimmune thyroid disease: a review. Thyroid. 1994; 4 333-339
93 Ljunggren J G, Torring O, Wallin G, Taube A, Tallstedt L, Hamberger B, Lundell G. Quality of life aspects and costs in treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: results from a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid. 1998; 8 653-659
94 Lucas A, Salinas I, Rius F, Pizarro E, Granada M L, Foz M, Sanmarti A. Medical therapy of Graves' disease: does thyroxine prevent recurrence of hyperthyroidism?. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997; 82 2410-2413
95 MacFarlane I A, Shalet S M, Beardwell C G, Khara J S. Transient hypothyroidism after iodine-131 treatment for thyrotoxicosis. Br Med J. 1979; 2 421
96 Mandel S J, Cooper D S. The use of antithyroid drugs in pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 86 2354-2359
97 Mann K, Dralle H, Gärtner R, Grußendorf M, Grüters-Kieslich A, Meng W, von zur Mühlen A, Reiners C. Schilddrüse. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Endokrinologie Rationelle Therapie in der Endokrinologie. Stuttgart, New York; Thieme Verlag 1997: 35-102
98 Marchant B, Brownlie B E, Hart D M, Horton P W, Alexander W D. The placental transfer of propylthiouracil, methimazole and carbimazole. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1977; 45 1187-1193
99 Marchant B, Lees J F, Alexander W D. Antithyroid drugs. Pharmacol Ther [B]. 1978; 3 305-348
100 Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Tanda M L, Manetti L, Dell'Unto E, Mazzi B, Rocchi R, Barbesino G, Pinchera A. Graves' ophthalmopathy and 131I therapy. Q J Nucl Med. 1999; 43 307-312
101 Marinelli L D, Quinby E H, Hine G J. Dosage determination with radioactive isotopes. Practical considerations in therapy and protection. Am J Roentgenol. 1948; 59 260-281
102 Martino E, Pinchera A, Capiferri R, Macchia E, Sardano G, Bartalena L, Mazzanti F, Baschieri L. Dissociation of responsiveness to thyrotropin-releasing hormone and thyroid suppressibility following antithyroid drug therapy of hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1976; 43 543-549
103 Masiukiewicz U S, Burrow G N. Hyperthyrtoidism in pregnancy: diagnosis and treatment. Thyroid. 1999; 9 647-652
104 Maugendre D, Gatel A, Campion L, Massart C, Guilhem I, Lorcy Y, Lescouarch J, Herry J Y, Allannic H. Antithyroid drugs and Graves' disease-prospective randomized assessment of long-term treatment. Clin Endocrinol. 1999; 50 127-132
105 McGregor A M, Petersen M M, McLachlan S M, Rooke P, Smith B R, Hall R. Carbimazole and the autoimmune response in Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 1980; 303 302-307
106 McIver B, Rae P, Beckett G, Wilkinson E, Gold A, Toft A. Lack of effect of thyroxine in patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism who are treated with an antithyroid drug. N Engl J Med. 1996; 334 220-224
107 Meier D A, Brill D R, Becker D V, Clarke S E, Silberstein E B, Royal H D, Balon H R. Procedure guideline for therapy of thyroid disease with (131)iodine. J Nucl Med. 2002; 43 856-861
108 Melander A, Hallengren B, Rosendal-Helgesen S, Sjoberg A K, Wahlin-Boll E. Comparative In Vitro Effects and In Vivo Kinetics of Antithyroid Drugs. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1980; 17 295-299
109 Mestman J H. Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Clinical obstetrics and gynecology. 1997; 40 45-64
110 Meyer-Gessner M, Benker G, Lederbogen S, Olbricht T, Reinwein D. Antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis: clinical experience with ten patients treated at one institution and review of the literature. J Endocrinol Invest. 1994; 17 29-36
111 Meyer-Gessner M, Benker G, Olbricht T, Windeck R, Cissewski K, Reiners C, Reinwein D. Side effects of antithyroid therapy of hyperthyroidism. A study of 1256 continuously treated patients. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1989; 114 166-171
112 Michelangeli V, Poon C, Taft J, Newnham H, Topliss D, Colman P. The prognostic value of thyrotropin receptor antibody measurement in the early stages of treatment of Graves' disease with antithyroid drugs. Thyroid. 1998; 8 119-124
113 Millar L K, Wing D A, Leung A S, Koonings P P, Montoro M N, Mestman J H. Low birth weight and preeclampsia in pregnancies complicated by hyperthyroidism. Obstet Gynecol. 1994; 84 946-949
114 Miller J M, Block M A. Functional autonomy in multinodular goitre. JAMA. 1970; 214 535-539
115 Miloni E, Studer H. Functional and morphologic particularities of the autonomous follicles in human goiters. J Mol Med (Abstract). 1980; 4 7
116 Moll Jr G W, Patel B R. Pediatric Graves' disease: therapeutic options and experience with radioiodine at the University of Mississippi Medical Center. South Med J. 1997; 90 1017-1022
117 Momotani N, Ito K, Hamada N, Ban Y, Nishikawa Y, Mimura T. Maternal hyperthyroidism and congenital malformation in the offspring. Clin Endocrinol. 1984; 20 695-700
118 Momotani N, Yamashita R, Makino F, Noh J Y, Ishikawa N, Ito K. Thyroid function in wholly breast-feeding infants whose mothers take high doses of propylthiouracil. Clin Endocrinol. 2000; 53 177-181
119 Monzani F, Caraccio N, Goletti O, Lippolis P V, Casolaro A, Del Guerra P, Cavina E, Miccoli P. Five-year follow-up of percutaneous ethanol injection for the treatment of hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules: a study of 117 patients. Clin Endocrinol. 1997; 46 9-15
120 Monzani F, Goletti O, Caraccio N, Del Guerra P, Ferdeghini M, Pucci E, Baschieri L. Percutaneous ethanol injection treatment of autonomous thyroid adenoma: hormonal and clinical evaluation. Clin Endocrinol. 1992; 36 491-497
121 Mortimer R H, Cannell G R, Addison R S, Johnson L P, Roberts M S, Bernus I. Methimazole and propylthiouracil equally cross the perfused human term placental lobule. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997; 82 3099-3102
122 Mortimer R H, Galligan J P, Cannell G R, Addison R S, Roberts M S. Maternal to fetal thyroxine transmission in the human term placenta is limited by inner ring deiodination. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996; 81 2247-2249
123 Mujtaba Q, Burrow G N. Treatment of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy with propylthiouracil and methimazole. Obstet Gynecol. 1975; 46 282-286
124 Nicholas W C, Fischer R G, Stevenson R A, Bass J D. Single daily dose of methimazole compared to every 8 hours propylthiouracil in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. South Med J. 1995; 88 973-976
125 Nygaard B, Hegedus L, Gervil M, Hjalgrim H, Hansen B M, Soe-Jensen P, Hansen J M. Influence of compensated radioiodine therapy on thyroid volume and incidence of hypothyroidism in Graves' disease. J Intern Med. 1995; 238 491-497
126 Nygaard B, Hegedus L, Nielsen K G, Ulriksen P, Hansen J M. Long-term effect of radioactive iodine on thyroid function and size in patients with solitary autonomously functioning toxic thyroid nodules. Clin Endocrinol. 1999; 50 197-202
127 O'Brien T, Gharib H, Suman V J, Van Heerden J A. Treatment of toxic solitary thyroid nodules: surgery versus radioactive iodine. Surgery. 1992; 112 1166-1170
128 Pacini F, Elisei R, Di Coscio G C, Anelli S, Macchia E, Conchetti R, Miccoli P, Arganini M, Pinchera A. Thyroid carcinoma in thyrotoxic patients treated by surgery. J Endocrinol Invest. 1988; 11 107-112
129 Page S R, Sheard C E, Herbert M, Hopton M, Jeffcoate W J. A comparison of 20 or 40 mg per day of carbimazole in the initial treatment of hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol. 1996; 45 511-516
130 Palit T K, Miller C C, Miltenburg D M. The efficacy of thyroidectomy for Graves' disease: A meta-analysis. J Surg Res. 2000; 90 161-165
131 Paracchi A, Ferrari C, Livraghi T, Reschini E, Macchi R M, Bergonzi M, Raineri P. Percutaneous intranodular ethanol injection: a new treatment for autonomous thyroid adenoma. J Endocrinol Invest. 1992; 15 353-362
132 Parma J, Duprez L, Van Sande J, Cochaux P, Gervy C, Mockel J, Dumont J, Vassart G. Somatic mutations in the thyrotropin receptor gene cause hyperfunctioning thyroid adenomas. Nature. 1993; 365 649-651
133 Parma J, Duprez L, Van Sande J, Hermans J, Rocmans P, Van Vliet G, Costagliola S, Rodien P, Dumont J E, Vassart G. Diversity and prevalence of somatic mutations in the thyrotropin receptor and Gs alpha genes as a cause of toxic thyroid adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997; 82 2695-2701
134 Paschke R. Constitutively activating TSH receptor mutations as the cause of toxic thyroid adenoma, multinodular toxic goiter and autosomal dominant non autoimmune hyperthyroidism. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 1996; 104 Suppl 4 129-132
135 Paschke R, Ludgate M. The thyrotropin receptor in thyroid diseases. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337 1675-1681
136 Paschke R, Vogg M, Kristoferitsch R, Aktuna D, Wawschinek O, Eber O, Usadel K H. Methimazole has no dose-related effect on the intensity of the intrathyroidal autoimmune process in relapsing Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1995; 80 2470-2474
137 Pedersen O M, Aardal N P, Larssen T B, Varhaug J E, Myking O, Vik-Mo H. The value of ultrasonography in predicting autoimmune thyroid disease. Thyroid. 2000; 10 251-259
138 Peters H, Fischer C, Bogner U, Reiners C, Schleusener H. Radioiodine therapy of Graves' hyperthyriodism: Standard vs. calculated 131 iodine activity. Results from a prospective, randomized, multicentre study. Eur J Clin Invest. 1995; 25 186-193
139 Peters H, Fischer C, Bogner U, Reiners C, Schleusener H. Reduction in thyroid volume after radioiodine therapy of Graves' hyperthyroidism: results of a prospective, randomized, multicentre study. Eur J Clin Invest. 1996; 26 59-63
140 Pomorski L, Cywinski J, Rybinski K. Cancer in hyperthyroidism. Neoplasma. 1996; 43 217-219
141 Rapoport B, Chazenbalk G D, Jaume J C, McLachlan S M. The thyrotropin (TSH) receptor: interaction with TSH and autoantibodies. Endocr Rev. 1998; 19 673-716
142 Reeves R A, From G L, Paul W, Leenen F H. Nadolol, propranolol, and thyroid hormones: evidence for a membrane-stabilizing action of propranolol. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1985; 37 157-161
143 Reinhardt M J, Brink I, Joe A Y, Von Mallek D, Ezziddin S, Palmedo H, Krause T M. Radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease based on tissue-absorbed dose calculations: effect of pre-treatment thyroid volume on clinical outcome. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2002; 29 1118-1124
144 Reinwein D, Benker G, König M P, Pinchera A, Schatz H, Schleusener H. Hyperthyroidism in Europe: clinical and laboratory data of a prospective multicentric study. J Endocrinol Invest. 1986; 9 (Suppl 2) 1-36
145 Reinwein D, Benker G, Lazarus J H, Alexander W D. A prospective randomized trial of antithyroid drug dose in Graves' disease therapy. European Multicenter Study Group on Antithyroid Drug Treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993; 76 1516-1521
146 Reschini E, Peracchi M. Thyroid scintigraphy during antithyroid treatment for autonomous nodules as a means of imaging extranodular tissue. Clin Nucl Med. 1993; 18 597-600
147 Rittmaster R S, Abbott E C, Douglas R, Givner M L, Lehmann L, Reddy S, Salisbury S R, Shlossberg A H, Tan M H, York S E. Effect of methimazole, with or without L-thyroxine, on remission rates in Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998; 83 814-818
148 Rivkees S A, Sklar C, Freemark M. The management of Graves' disease in children, with special emphasis on radioiodine treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998; 83 3767-3776
149 Rojdmark J, Jarhult J. High long term recurrence rate after subtotal thyroidectomy for nodular goitre. Eur J Surg. 1995; 161 725-727
150 Romaldini J H, Bromberg N, Werner R S, Tanaka L M, Rodrigues H F, Werner M C, Farah C S, Reis L C. Comparison of effects of high and low dosage regimens of antithyroid drugs in the management of Graves' hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983; 57 563-570
151 Ron E, Doody M M, Becker D V. Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. JAMA. 1998; 280 347-355
152 Roti E, Montermini M, Roti S, Gardini E, Robuschi G, Minelli R, Salvi M, Bentivoglio M, Guiducci U, Braverman L E. The effect of diltiazem, a calcium channel-blocking drug, on cardiac rate and rhythm in hyperthyroid patients. Arch Intern Med. 1988; 148 1919-1921
153 Roti E, Uberti E D. Iodine excess and hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2001; 11 493-500
154 Rypance G W, Woods C D, Donnelly M, Oliver J, Alexander W. Carbimazole and breast feeding (Letter). Lancet. 1987; 1 928
155 Sabri O, Zimni M, Schreckenberger M, Reinartz P, Ostwald E, Buell U. Radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease patients with large diffuse goiters treated with or without carbimazole at the time of radioiodine therapy. Thyroid. 1999; 9 1181-1188
156 Schleusener H, Schwander J, Fischer C, Holle R, Holl G, Badenhoop K, Hensen J, Finke R, Bogner U, Mayr W R. Prospective multicentre study on the prediction of relapse after antithyroid drug treatment in patients with Graves' disease [published erratum appears in Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1989 Aug; 121 (2): 304]. Acta Endocrinol. 1989; 120 689-701
157 Scholz G H, Hagemann E, Arkenau C, Engelmann L, Lamesch P, Schreiter D, Schonfelder M, Olthoff D, Pascke R. Is there a place for thyroidectomy in older patients with thyrotoxic storm and cardiorespiratory failure?. Thyroid. 2003; in press
158 Schwab K O, Sohlemann P, Gerlich M, Broecker M, Petrykowski W, Holzapfel H P, Paschke R, Gruters A, Derwahl M. Mutations of the TSH receptor as cause of congenital hyperthyroidism. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 1996; 104 (Suppl 4) 124-128
159 Shapiro B. Optimization of radioiodine therapy of thyrotoxicosis: what have we learned after 50 years?. J Nucl Med. 1993; 34 1638-1641
160 Shoenfeld Y, Alkan M L, Asaly A, Carmeli Y, Katz M. Benign familial leukopenia and neutropenia in different ethnic groups. Eur J Haematol. 1988; 41 273-277
161 Shulman D I, Muhar I, Jorgensen E V, Diamond F B, Bercu B B, Root A W. Autoimmune hyperthyroidism in prepubertal children and adolescents: comparison of clinical and biochemical features at diagnosis and responses to medical therapy. Thyroid. 1997; 7 755-760
162 Singer P A, Cooper D S, Levy E G, Ladenson P W, Braverman L E, Daniels G, Greenspan F S, McDougall I R, Nikolai T F. Treatment guidelines for patients with hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Standards of Care Committee, American Thyroid Association. JAMA. 1995; 273 808-812
163 Solomon B, Glinoer D, Lagasse R, Wartofsky L. Current trends in the management of Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990; 70 1518-1524
164 Sridama V, McCormick M, Kaplan E L, Fauchet R, DeGroot L J. Long-term follow-up study of compensated low-dose 131I therapy for Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 1984; 311 426-432
165 Stanbury J B, Ermans A E, Bourdoux P, Todd C, Oken E, Tonglet R, Vidor G, Braverman L E, Medeiros-Neto G. Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism: occurrence and epidemiology. Thyroid. 1998; 8 83-100
166 Stanley M M, Astwood E B. 1-methyl-2-mercaptoimidazole: an antithyroid compound highly active in man. Endocrinology. 1949; 44 588-589
167 Studer H, Peter H J, Gerber H. Natural heterogeneity of thyroid cells: the basis for understanding thyroid function and nodular goiter growth. Endocr Rev. 1989; 10 125-135
168 Tajiri J, Noguchi S, Murakami T, Murakami N. Antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis. The usefulness of routine white blood cell count monitoring. Arch Intern Med. 1990; 150 621-624
169 Takamatsu J, Kuma K, Mozai T. Serum triiodothyronine to thyroxine ratio: a newly recognized predictor of the outcome of hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986; 62 980-983
170 Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, Wallin G, Ljunggren J G, Blomgren H, Taube A. Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. The Thyroid Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992; 326 1733-1738
171 Taurog A. The mechanism of action of the thioureylene antithyroid drugs. Endocrinology. 1976; 98 1031-1046
172 Taurog A, Dorris M L. A reexamination of the proposed inactivation of thyroid peroxidase in the rat thyroid by propylthiouracil. Endocrinology. 1989; 124 3038-3042
173 Trülzsch B, Krohn K, Wonerow P, Chey S, Holzapfel H P, Ackermann F, Führer D, Paschke R. Detection of thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor and Gsalpha mutations: in 75 toxic thyroid nodules by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. J Mol Med. 2001; 78 684-691
174 Tunbridge W M, Evered D C, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, Evans J G, Young E, Bird T, Smith P A. The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol. 1977; 7 481-493
175 Tuttle R M, Patience T, Budd S. Treatment with propylthiouracil before radioactive iodine therapy is associated with a higher treatment failure rate than therapy with radioactive iodine alone in Graves' disease. Thyroid. 1995; 5 243-247
176 Van Dijke C P, Heydendael R J, De Kleine M J. Methimazole, carbimazole, and congenital skin defects. Ann Intern Med. 1987; 106 60-61
177 Vanderpump M P, Ahlquist J A, Franklyn J A, Clayton R N. Consensus statement for good practice and audit measures in the management of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. The Research Unit of the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Endocrinology and Diabetes Committee of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and the Society for Endocrinology. Br Med J. 1996; 313 539-544
178 Vassart G, Dumont J E. The thyrotropin receptor and the regulation of thyrocyte function and growth. Endocr Rev. 1992; 13 596-611
179 Velkeniers B, Cytryn R, Vanhaelst L, Jonckheer M H. Treatment of hyperthyroidism with radioiodine: adjunctive therapy with antithyroid drugs reconsidered. Lancet. 1988; 1 1127-1129
180 Vitti P. Grey scale thyroid ultrasonography in the evaluation of patients with Graves' disease. Eur J Endocrinol. 2000; 142 22-24
181 Vitti P, Rago T, Chiovato L, Pallini S, Santini F, Fiore E, Rocchi R, Martino E, Pinchera A. Clinical features of patients with Graves' disease undergoing remission after antithyroid drug treatment. Thyroid. 1997; 7 369-375
182 Volpe R. Evidence that the immunosuppressive effects of antithyroid drugs are mediated through actions on the thyroid cell, modulating thyrocyte-immunocyte signaling: a review. Thyroid. 1994; 4 217-223
183 Wahl R A, Rimpl I, Saalabian S, Schabram J. Differentiated operative therapy of thyroid autonomy (Plummer's disease). Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 1998; 106 (Suppl 4) S78-S84
184 Wallaschofski H, Kaczmarek M, Miehle K, Hentschel B, Paschke R. Differences between thyrotropin receptor antibody bioactivity and inhibition of 125I - bovine thyrotropin binding. Thyroid. 2000; 10 897-907
185 Wallaschofski H, Miehle K, Mayer A, Tuschy U, Hentschel B, Paschke R. Prediction of remission or relapse for Graves' hyperthyroidism by the combined determination of stimulating, blocking and binding TSH-receptor antibodies after the withdrawal of antithyroid drug treatment. Horm Metab Res. 2002; 34 383-388
186 Wallaschofski H, Orda C, Führer D, Holzapfel H P, Krohn K, Miehle K, Neumann S, Georgi P, Paschke R. Distinction between autoimmune and nonautoimmune hyperthyroidism by determination of thyrotropin-receptor antibodies in patients with the scintigraphic diagnosis of disseminated autonomy. Thyroid. 2001 a; 11 710-711
187 Wallaschofski H, Orda C, Georgi P, Miehle K, Paschke R. Distinction between autoimmune and non-autoimmune hyperthyroidism by determination of TSH-receptor antibodies in patients with the initial diagnosis of toxic multinodular goiter. Horm Metab Res. 2001 b; 33 504-507
188 Wallaschofski H, Paschke R. Detection of thyroid stimulating (TSAB)- and thyrotropin stimulation blocking (TSBAB) antibodies with CHO cell lines expressing different TSH-receptor numbers. Clin Endocrinol. 1999; 50 365-372
189 Wartofsky L, Glinoer D, Solomon B, Nagataki S, Lagasse R, Nagayama Y, Izumi M. Differences and similarities in the diagnosis and treatment of Graves' disease in Europe, Japan, and the United States. Thyroid. 1991; 1 129-135
190 Weber C, Scholz G H, Lamesch P, Paschke R. Thyroidectomy in iodine induced thyrotoxic storm. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 1999; 107 468-472
191 Weetman A P. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2000; 343 1236-1248
192 Weetman A P, McGregor A M, Hall R. Evidence for an effect of antithyroid drugs on the natural history of Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol. 1984; 21 163-172
193 Weetman A P, Pickerill A P, Watson P, Chatterjee V K, Edwards O M. Treatment of Graves' disease with the block-replace regimen of antithyroid drugs: the effect of treatment duration and immunogenetic susceptibility on relapse. Q J Med. 1994; 87 337-341
194 Weiss I, Davies T F. Inhibition of immunoglobulin-secreting cells by antithyroid drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1981; 53 1223-1228
195 Werner R S, Romaldini J H, Farah C S, Werner M C, Bromberg N. Serum thyroid-stimulating antibody, thyroglobulin levels, and thyroid suppressibility measurement as predictors of the outcome of combined methimazole and triiodothyronine therapy in Graves' disease. Thyroid. 1991; 1 293-299
196 Witte J, Goretzki P E, Dotzenrath C, Simon D, Felis P, Neubauer M, Roher H D. Surgery for Graves' disease: total versus subtotal thyroidectomy - results of a prospective randomized trial. World J Surg. 2000; 24 1303-1311
197 Worthington J, Byfield P G, Himsworth R L. Heterogeneity of circulating TSH-receptor antibodies in thyroid disease demonstrated directly by chromatography. Clin Endocrinol. 1991; 34 147-154
198 Yamada T, Koizumi Y, Sato A, Hashizume K, Aizawa T, Takasu N, Nagata H. Reappraisal of the 3, 5, 3′-triiodothyronine-suppression test in the prediction of long term outcome of antithyroid drug therapy in patients with hyperthyroid Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984; 58 676-680
199 Yamada T, Takasu N, Sato A, Aizawa T, Koizumi Y. Pituitary-thyroid feedback regulation in patients with Graves' disease during antithyroid drug therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982; 54 83-88
200 Young R J, Sherwood M B, Simpson J G, Nicol A G, Michie W, Beck J S. Histometry of lymphoid infiltrate in the thyroid of primary thyrotoxicosis patients. Relation of extent of thyroiditis to preoperative drug treatment and postoperative hypothyroidism. J Clin Pathol. 1976; 29 398-402
201 Zanella E, Rulli F, Muzi M, Sianesi M, Danese D, Sciacchitano S, Pontecorvi A. Prevalence of thyroid cancer in hyperthyroid patients treated by surgery. World J Surg. 1998; 22 473-477
202 Zhu Y, Portmann L, Denereaz N, Lemarchand-Beraud T. Simultaneous assay for three types of thyrotropin receptor antibody activities using FRTL-5 cells in patients with autoimmune thyroid diseases. Eur J Endocrinol. 1994; 131 359-368

Prof. Dr. med. R. Paschke

Universität Leipzig
Zentrum für Innere Medizin
Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik III

Philipp-Rosenthal-Straße 27

04103 Leipzig

Germany

Phone: + 493419713200

Fax: + 49 34 19 71 32 09

Email: pasr@medizin.uni-leipzig.de