Introduction
Tumors of the uterine corpus include epithelial tumors, mesenchymal tumors, mixed
epithelial and mesenchymal, miscellaneous tumors (neuroendocrine or germ cell), lymphoid,
myeloid and secondary tumors.[1]
[2] The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system has classified uterine
cancers into two groups: corpus uteri (uterine carcinomas and carcinosarcoma) and
corpus uteri (sarcomas).[3] Out of these, endometrial cancer is the most common and is classified histologically
into Type I and Type II. Definitive diagnosis is usually made through endometrial
biopsy or dilatation and curettage; however, pre-operative radiological imaging is
required to stage the disease and to tailor patient's management. The treatment comprises
surgical staging and adjuvant radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy depending on the final
surgico-pathological stage.
Risk Factors and Etiopathogenesis
Long-term estrogen excess (exogenous or endogenous) is postulated to have a causative
effect on Type I cancers.[4] Early menarche, late menopause, nulliparity, anovulatory states (polycystic ovary
syndrome) and estrogen only hormonal therapy are causes of prolonged estrogen exposure.
The other risk factors include obesity, diabetes mellitus, Lynch syndrome, Cowden
syndrome, tamoxifen therapy, and previous pelvic irradiation.[5] Most patients present at an early stage and are associated with a good prognosis,
which depends on several factors, including the clinical stage, depth of myometrial
invasion, histological grade, cell type, lymphovascular invasion, nodal status, and
patient age. In contrast, Type II cancers have a worse prognosis and risk factors
include Black race, older age, and lower body mass index.[4]
[5]
Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation in India and Global
There has been an increase in the incidence and prevalence of cancers in female population
worldwide. Though breast and carcinoma cervix are the most common causes of morbidity
and mortality, carcinoma of the uterine corpus continues to pose a significant concern.
It is the sixth most common cancer with detection of 417,000 new cases and 97,000
deaths, as per GLOBOCAN 2020.[6] Uterine malignancies are predominantly seen in developed countries as compared with
the developing countries; however, the incidence shows a rising trend in both due
to an increase in the prevalence of associated risk factors such as excess body weight
and diabetes. The National Cancer Registry of India showed heterogeneous distribution
of cancers in India with breast and carcinoma cervix being the most common since 2012.[7] It had projected the risk of uterine corpus in 26,514 patients in 2020 with cumulative
risk of 1 in 190, indicating its potential risk. GLOBOCAN 2020 showed 16,413 new cases
of carcinoma uterine corpus, with 6,385 deaths, estimating its 5-year prevalence of
6.56 per 100,000 in Indian population.[6]
Imaging Referral Guidelines
Endometrial Carcinoma
Endometrial carcinoma is staged surgically according to the joint 2017 International
Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO)/Tumour, Node, Metastasis (TNM) classification
system.[3] The staging procedure includes total hysterectomy, bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy,
and lymphadenectomy, unless the patients desire fertility sparing surgery (and are
candidates for the same). Imaging serves as an adjunct in the treatment stratification
of endometrial carcinoma.[8]
[9] According to the NCCN guidelines,[10] the initial imaging workup varies according to the treatment offered.
For Non-Fertility Sparing treatment, pelvic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (CEMRI) is recommended (to establish
origin of tumor as endometrial versus endocervical and local disease extent evaluation).[11] In early stages ([Fig. 1]), evaluation with transvaginal sonography can be done followed by MRI as an optional
modality.[12] Chest X-ray is the baseline evaluation, to be followed by non-contrast computed
tomography (NCCT) chest in case of any abnormality. CECT chest and abdomen (including
pelvis) is recommended for metastatic evaluation in high-grade carcinomas (poorly
differentiated endometrioid, clear cell, serous, undifferentiated carcinoma, and carcinosarcoma)
and PET/CT (neck/chest/abdomen/pelvis/groin) can be done in select cases. In case
of postoperative incidental finding of endometrial cancer or incompletely staged cancer
with uterine risk factors (tumor > 2 cm, high-grade carcinomas, invasion > 50% myometrium,
cervical stromal involvement and LVSI), CECT chest and abdomen is suggested to evaluate
for metastatic disease. Additional imaging can be considered based on the clinical
concern for metastases (delay in presentation or treatment, abnormal physical exam
finding, abdominal or pulmonary symptoms, bulky uterine tumor and vaginal or extrauterine
disease).[10]
[13]
Fig. 1 Imaging referral and treatment algorithm for endometrial carcinoma.Adapted from references
[10]
[12].
For Fertility-Sparing treatment, CEMRI pelvis is preferred to exclude any myoinvasion and assess the local disease
extent.[14] If MRI is contraindicated, transvaginal ultrasound pelvis can be considered. Chest
X-ray is the baseline evaluation to be followed by non-contrast computed tomography
(NCCT) chest in case of any abnormality. If metastasis is suspected in select patients,
PET/CT (neck/chest/abdomen/pelvis/groin) is recommended. Additional imaging can be
considered based on the clinical concern for metastases.[10]
Uterine Sarcoma
Uterine sarcomas may be diagnosed after total/supracervical hysterectomy (SCH) or
after biopsy/myomectomy and the imaging workup varies accordingly. For the initial
workup of patients with incidental finding of uterine sarcoma or incompletely resected
uterus/adnexa, CEMRI abdomen and pelvis is recommended with non-contrast CT chest
for metastatic disease. In cases of SCH, suspicious tumor fragmentation, myomectomy,
or intraperitoneal morcellation local tumor extension and residual disease is to be
evaluated with pelvic MRI. PET/CT (neck/chest/abdomen/pelvis/groin) is recommended
to clarify ambiguous findings. Additional imaging can be considered based on the clinical
concern for metastases (as in case of endometrial carcinoma).[10]
[15]
Clinical/ Diagnostic Workup Excluding Imaging
The clinical presentation is usually abnormal uterine bleeding in premenopausal women
and postmenopausal bleeding in the elderly age group. A detailed history including
use of hormones, tamoxifen use, diabetes mellitus, and family history is essential
followed by a complete systemic and gynecological examination. Endometrial and endocervical
sampling is required to make a definitive diagnosis and endocervical curettage is
done before endometrial aspiration. Endometrial biopsy is done with endometrial aspiration
using devices such as Pipelle or a fine Karman's cannula.[4] In women with inadequate or negative sampling and strong suspicion of malignancy,
hysteroscopy and directed biopsy is advised.
The preoperative laboratory evaluation includes a complete blood count, liver and
renal function tests, blood sugar, serum electrolytes serum electrolytes, viral marker
and viral marker and urinalysis. In selected patients with extrauterine spread of
disease (especially nodal involvement in high-risk tumors), serum levels of CA 125
maybe elevated and can be used to monitor response to therapy.[16] The serum human epididymis protein (HE4) levels are elevated in aggressive types
of disease and are useful for detecting early disease recurrence.[17]
Genetic evaluation is suggested for younger patients (< 50 years), family history
of uterine and colorectal malignancies and those with known related genetic syndrome.
Imaging Guidelines
Screening
Routine screening is not recommended for endometrial carcinoma because majority of
the patients with endometrial cancer present with abnormal uterine bleeding and at
a stage with disease confined to the uterus. In addition, there is no non-invasive
test available with sufficiently high specificity and sensitivity for screening. However,
in patients with Lynch syndrome, endometrial biopsy is recommended every 1 to 2 years
beginning at the age of 30 to 35 years as a screening procedure.[18]
Diagnosis and Staging
Staging of endometrial carcinoma is primarily surgical and typically performed with
laparoscopy.[8] The diagnosis is established by histopathological evaluation and MRI maybe done
in equivocal cases to distinguish between cancers of endometrial and cervical origin.
Preoperative disease assessment requires depth of myometrial invasion (MRI) and histologic
type and grade (endometrial biopsy).
Transabdominal and transvaginal ultrasound are used as baseline screening modalities
in patients presenting with abnormal uterine bleeding or postmenopausal bleeding.
Transvaginal US has accuracies ranging from 73% to 84% in assessing myometrial invasion
([Fig. 2]) with insufficient data about prediction of cervical extension or lymphadenopathy.[19]
[20]
Fig. 2
Transvaginal ultrasound in carcinoma endometrium. A: A large relatively well-defined iso to hyperechoic mass lesion (*) in the endometrial
cavity with < 50% myometrial invasion. B: An ill-defined hyperechoic mass in the endometrial cavity with > 50% invasion into
myometrium (arrow).
Computed tomography (CT) has a limited role in evaluating myometrial invasion ([Fig. 3]) and cervical extension in endometrial cancer. In comparative studies of CT with
US or MRI for myometrial invasion, the accuracy of CT is reported to be 58% to 61%
versus 68% to 69% for US and 88% to 89% for MRI.[21]
[22] In select cases, CT chest and abdomen is indicated as a part of metastatic workup.
Fig. 3
CECT abdomen in endometrial carcinoma. Patient had pacemaker and MRI was contraindicated. An ill-defined heterogeneously
enhancing lesion in the endometrial cavity (arrow in A) with >50% invasion into myometrium (arrowhead in B).
Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI ([Fig. 4]) is the preferred imaging modality to evaluate myometrial invasion with high accuracy
(59% to 100%), sensitivity (71% to 100%), and specificity (72% to 100%).[23] The staging accuracy ranges from 83% to 92%.[24]
[25]
Fig. 4
Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI pelvis in carcinoma endometrium (stage IB). T1 axial oblique (A) and T2 sagittal (B) show an ill-defined polypoidal mass lesion (*) in the endometrial cavity. DCE MRI
(C) shows mild contrast enhancement of tumor and disruption of subendometrial zone of
enhancement (arrow in C) with myometrial invasion of >50%. DWI (D) shows diffusion restriction (*) with low ADC value in the ADC map (E). Post contrast T1 axial oblique (F) shows myometrial invasion of >50% with intact serosal margin (arrow in F).
PET CT is considered to be better in the evaluation of lymph node metastases and metabolically
active nodes of any size are considered to be metastatic.[26] It is also superior in the assessment of extrapelvic disease and bone metastases.[3]
[27]
MRI Sequences and Imaging Protocols
Scanner: There is improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), spatial resolution, anatomic
detail and faster scanning techniques with the use of 3 Tesla (T) scanners. The use
of phase-array surface abdominopelvic coil is recommended for both 1.5 T and 3.0 T
scanners.
Patient preparation: Fasting is advised for 4 hours, but water intake is encouraged
before the scan. A moderately full bladder is required during the scan and the patient
should be asked to void ∼30 to 45 minutes before the examination. Antispasmodic drugs
such as butylscopolamine (40 mg) IM/IV or glucagon IV/IM (0.5–1.0 mg) are recommended
to reduce bowel motion. Vaginal opacification with ∼10 mL of lignocaine 2% jelly gives
optimal contrast resolution.[28]
MRI Technique and Sequences: In the pelvis, T2W FSE sequences are the mainstay of
evaluation. Sequences are oriented in relation to the pelvis or dedicated to the uterine
axis.[29] T2-weighted images include a small FOV (512 × 256 matrix, 24 cm FOV) sagittal T2WI
of the pelvis and a small FOV T2W sequences of pelvis in the axial oblique plane perpendicular
to the uterine corpus. T1W sequence of the pelvis in the axial plane is followed by
diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) in axial oblique (in sync with the axial oblique
T2WI). Large FOV (256 × 256 matrix, 32 cm FOV) T1- or T2-weighted image image of upper
abdomen is obtained to evaluate for lymph nodes and hydronephrosis. DWI in the axial
plane (large FOV) is also acquired in sync with the large FOV T2 sequence.[8] The dynamic contrast-enhanced sequences are acquired for the assessment of preservation
of endometrial halo and differential enhancement of the endometrial soft tissue and
the myometrium. Dynamic acquisition can be done in the sagittal plane using a three-dimensional
gradient echo T1WI, fat-saturated sequence following the administration of 0.1 mmol/kg
of gadolinium at 2 mL/s. Images are acquired before contrast injection and then at
25 seconds, 1 minute and 2 minutes after injection followed by a delayed sequence
in the axial oblique plane 4 minutes after injection.[30]
Staging
Endometrial Carcinoma
Carcinomas are usually isointense on T1WI and hyperintense (relative to the myometrium)
on T2WI. The lesion shows diffusion restriction with low mean ADC values.[31] Post-contrast administration, tumor enhances slowly and less avidly than the myometrium.
Assessment of myometrial invasion is crucial in the staging of endometrial carcinoma.
Deep myometrial invasion is excluded in the presence of an intact junctional zone
(JZ) along with smooth early subendometrial enhancement (25–60 seconds). Disruption
of the JZ with the tumor within the outer myometrium is suggestive of myometrial invasion
(> 50%). The presence of leiomyomas or adenomyosis can result in an overestimation
of the depth of myometrial invasion. Deep myometrial invasion is best assessed during
the equilibrium phase (2–3 minutes after contrast injection). An imaging delay of
∼90 seconds is considered optimal timing for best tumor-myometrium contrast.[32] Delayed-phase images (4–5 minutes after contrast) are useful for detecting cervical
stromal invasion.[30]
For extrauterine extension, T2WI should be interpreted in conjunction with the DWI.
The presence of intermediate to high signal intensity tumor causing disruption of
the normal low signal intensity cervical stroma is suggestive of cervical stromal
invasion on T2WI.
Serosal involvement is suggested by an irregular uterine contour/disrupted low signal
intensity of the uterine serosa on T2WI, and a loss of the normal edge of enhancing
myometrium on DCE sequences.[8]
Tumor abutting or indenting the bladder/rectum over a significant area; tumor interrupting
the low signal intensity of the bladder/rectal muscular layer or tumor invading the
bladder/rectal muscular wall on T2WI is suggestive of bladder/ rectal involvement.
The presence of bullous edema alone is not sufficient to label it as stage IVA disease.
Adnexal deposits can be well picked up on DWI and T2WI.[30]
Lymph node involvement can be well picked up on T1WI and DWI. Morphological features
such as short-axis diameter of more than 10 mm, rounded shape, loss of fatty hilum
are features that help to identify suspicious lymph nodes.[33] However, there is a degree of overlap in the sizes and ADC values of benign and
malignant pelvic lymph nodes.
For treatment response, the role of CEMRI and ADC values is still evolving. The commonest
site for recurrence is the vagina[34] followed by pelvic and paraaortic lymph nodes. The presence of a T2 hyperintense
mass with disruption of the normal low signal intensity linear configuration of the
vault is suggestive of vault recurrence.
Uterine Sarcomas
The primary uterine sarcomas are leiomyosarcoma (LMS), endometrial stromal sarcoma
(ESS), and adenosarcoma. Usually, the diagnosis of sarcomas is made after hysterectomy
or myomectomy. The staging of LMS and ESS is different and that of adenosarcoma is
the same as endometrial carcinoma. Size is an important criterion in staging though
myometrial invasion in LMS and ESS is definitional.[3]
T2WI and contrast enhanced T1WI ([Fig. 5]) are useful in assessing the size, spread into adnexa, abdominal tissues, bladder
or rectum (key T descriptors). LMS are usually solid masses with irregular margins,
hemorrhagic T1 hyperintense areas, and intermediate to high signal on T2WI with heterogenous
post contrast enhancement and diffusion restriction. ADC values in LMS range from
0.791 ± 0.145 × 10−3 to 1.17 ± 0.15 × 10−3 mm2/s.[35]
Fig. 5
Contrast enhanced MRI of leiomyosarcoma of uterus (stage IV A). T1 axial (A) and T2 sagittal (B) images show a large, ill-defined, heterogeneous lesion (*) replacing the entire
uterus and involving bilateral adnexa, reaching up to the bilateral pelvic side walls.
DWI (C) and corresponding ADC map (D) show areas of diffusion restriction. Post contrast sagittal (E) and coronal (F) images show heterogeneous enhancement of the mass and infiltration of the rectum
(arrow in F).
PET CT is considered superior in evaluation of lymph nodes and extra pelvic metastases.
[Table 1] summarizes the TNM and FIGO staging of uterine cancers including carcinoma and sarcoma.
Table 1.
TNM and FIGO staging of malignancies of the uterine corpus (Carcinoma Endometrium,
Carcinosarcoma, Leiomyosarcoma and Endometrial stromal sarcoma) [Adapted from reference
10]
|
FIGO
|
Carcinoma Endometrium & Carcinosarcoma
|
Sarcoma (Leiomyosarcoma & Endometrial stromal sarcoma)
|
|
T
|
|
TX
|
|
Primary lesion cannot be assessed
|
Primary lesion cannot be assessed
|
|
T0
|
|
No evidence of primary lesion.
|
No evidence of primary lesion
|
|
T1
T1a
T1b
|
I
IA
IB
|
Lesion confined to the body of uterus including endocervical glandular involvement
Lesion limited to the endometrium or░<░50% myometrial invasion
Lesion invading ≥ 50% myometrium
|
Growth limited to the uterus
Size of the lesion ≤ 5 cm in greatest dimension
Lesion░>░5 cm
|
|
T2
T2a
T2b
|
II
IIA
IIB
|
Lesion invading the cervical stroma (not endocervix) but not extending beyond the
uterus.
-
-
|
Lesion seen beyond the uterus, within the pelvis
Lesion involves adnexa
Lesion involves other pelvic tissues
|
|
T3
T3a
T3b
|
III
IIIA
IIIB
|
Lesion involving serosa, adnexa, vagina or parametrium
Direct extension or metastasis to serosa and/or adnexa
Direct extension or metastasis to vagina or parametrium
|
Lesion infiltrates abdominal tissues
One site
More than one site
|
|
T4
|
IVA
|
Infiltration of bladder mucosa and/or bowel mucosa
(bullous edema is not sufficient to classify a tumor as T4)
|
Lesion invades bladder or rectum
|
|
N
|
|
NX
|
|
Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
|
Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
|
|
N0
|
|
No regional lymph node metastasis
|
No regional lymph node metastasis
|
|
N0(i + )
|
|
Isolated cancer cells in regional lymph node(s), not > 0.2 mm
|
Isolated cancer cells in regional lymph node(s) not > 0.2 mm
|
|
N1
N1mi
N1a
|
IIIC1
IIIC1
IIIC1
|
Regional lymph node metastasis in pelvic lymph nodes
>0.2 mm to ≤ 2.0 mm in diameter (pelvic lymph nodes)
> 2.0 mm in diameter (pelvic lymph nodes)
|
Regional lymph node metastasis (FIGO IIIC)
|
|
N2
N2mi
N2a
|
IIIC2
IIIC2
IIIC2
|
Regional lymph node metastasis to para-aortic lymph nodes with or without positive
pelvic lymph nodes
>0.2 mm ≤ 2.0 mm in diameter (para-aortic lymph nodes)
> 2.0 mm in diameter (para-aortic lymph nodes)
|
−
|
|
M
|
|
M0
|
|
No distant metastasis
|
No distant metastasis
|
|
M1
|
IVB
|
Distant metastasis including metastasis to inguinal lymph nodes, intraperitoneal disease,
liver, lung, or bone.
(excludes metastasis to pelvic or para-aortic lymph nodes, uterine serosa, vagina,
or adnexa).
|
Distant metastasis (excluding adnexa, pelvic, and abdominal tissues)
|
Follow-up/Surveillance
Endometrial Carcinoma
In cases of non-fertility-sparing treatment for endometrial carcinoma, imaging is
to be guided by the symptoms of the patient, risk assessment, and clinical signs of
recurrent or metastatic disease (palpable mass; lymphadenopathy; vaginal tumor; and
any new pulmonary, abdominal or pelvic symptoms).[36]
[37] Based on these symptoms, CT abdomen and/or chest CT maybe performed. Whole body
PET/CT and/or CEMRI abdomen can be performed as clinically indicated in selected patients.[10]
[38]
In cases of fertility-sparing treatment, repeat CEMRI pelvis is preferred for patients
with persistent endometrial carcinoma (6–9 months of failed medical therapy), especially
if further fertility-sparing approaches are being considered.[10] Additional imaging can be considered based on the clinical concern for metastases.
In case of suspected recurrence or metastases, CT abdomen and/or chest CT is recommended
with whole body PET/CT and MRI abdomen indicated in select patients.
Uterine Sarcoma
In cases of uterine sarcoma, CECT of the chest/abdomen/pelvis (or CEMRI abdomen with
NCCT chest) is recommended every 3 to 6 months for the first 3 years and then every
6 to 12 months for the next 2 years. Subsequently, annual to biannual imaging can
be considered for up to an additional 5 years (varies according to the stage and histology
grade and can be done every 3 months). Additional imaging, including PET/CT, is based
on the clinical concern for metastases.[10]
[39]
Principles of Management
Treatment planning should be done in multidisciplinary tumor board.[40] For the management of early-stage including high-risk cases, minimally invasive
approach is preferred.[41] The steps include peritoneal wash cytology, exploration of intra-abdominal structures,
type-I extra fascial hysterectomy, bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy + lymphadenectomy.
More extensive procedures including radical hysterectomy are needed to take negative
margins in advanced disease.[40] Decision of systematic lymphadenectomy is based on the risk of nodal involvement.
In patients with low-grade endometrioid adenocarcinoma with tumor size ≤ 2 cm and
with none or superficial myometrial invasion, the risk of nodal involvement is < 1%
and hence, lymph node dissection can be safely omitted. While systematic pelvic and
para aortic nodal dissection is done for the purpose of staging in those with intermediate-risk
factors, in patients with high-risk factors, nodal dissection is recommended for therapeutic
benefit too.[40]
[42] Sentinel node biopsy should be considered for staging if facilities are available.
Infra colic omentectomy should be done for serous variants and carcinosarcoma.[40] Younger women with uterus confined well-differentiated endometrioid adenocarcinoma
and no myometrial invasion may be offered fertility preserving treatment.[43] Decision for adjuvant therapy is decided using prognostic risk stratification based
on predictive factors and molecular profile ([Table 2]).[40]
[44]
[45]
Table 2.
Selection criteria of adjuvant therapy. Adapted from Concin et al.40
|
Risk group
|
Common treatment recommendation
|
|
Low risk
|
No adjuvant treatment
|
|
Intermediate risk
|
Vaginal brachytherapy
Consider observation if age < 60 years
|
|
High-intermediate risk
|
Vaginal brachytherapy
Consider EBRT, if LVSI un-equivocally positive, especially if no lymph node dissection
or sentinel nodes have been performed.
|
|
High-risk
|
I. EBRT, Consider VBT, if no LVSI
II. Vaginal brachytherapy if grade 1–2 disease (e.g., stage II disease)
III. Pelvic radiotherapy if Stage I, grade 3 LVSI un equivocally positive, Stage
II
IV. Stage III-combined radiotherapy and chemotherapy
|
Non-endometrioid
I. Stage IA-vaginal brachytherapy after full surgical staging,
II. LVSI negative Stage IB-III: combined external beam RT and chemo
|
