Muscle Volume Gain Following 20 Training Sessions on an Eccentric Arm-Crank Ergometer

Abstract

Eccentric resistance training is a promising strategy for achieving physiological benefits at lower cardiovascular and metabolic costs compared to traditional concentric training. Whereas lower-body eccentric training has been studied extensively, only little is known regarding upper-body eccentric strength training. This study assessed the impact of an eccentric arm-crank training on arm muscle volume. A total of 20 eccentric arm-crank training sessions were completed over a maximum of 12 weeks (2–3 trainings/wk). A training progression from 20 to 50% of the individual peak power and a duration from 8 to 14 minutes was applied. Before (“pretest”) and after the training intervention phase (“posttest”), volume measurements using magnetic resonance imaging and circumference measurements of the upper arm were performed. Differences between pretest and posttest measurements were evaluated. Twelve healthy and physically active participants (median [Q1–Q3] age 28 [27–30] yr, nine females, three males) were included in the analysis. Relative muscle volume (+5.7%, p=0.002) and arm circumference (+3.2%, p=0.003) increased after the training intervention. Twenty eccentric arm-crank training sessions increased the muscle volume of the upper arm. Because eccentric training is associated with lower cardiovascular and metabolic demands, it is an attractive approach to improve upper-body strength. This training approach is especially interesting for individuals who rely on their upper body for daily activities, including wheelchair users. In the next step, the training protocol could be evaluated in this population across both rehabilitation and athletic settings.

Keywords

resistance training - upper body strength - muscle gain - MRI - muscle hypertrophy - eccentric exercise

Publikationsverlauf

Eingereicht: 06. Februar 2025

Angenommen nach Revision: 21. August 2025

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
18. September 2025

• References

• 1 Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Bellon CR, Stone MH. The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations. Sports Med 2018; 48: 765-785
• 2 Douglas J, Pearson S, Ross A, McGuigan M. Chronic Adaptations to Eccentric Training: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 2017; 47: 917-941
• 3 Franchi MV, Reeves ND, Narici MV. Skeletal Muscle Remodeling in Response to Eccentric vs. Concentric Loading: Morphological, Molecular, and Metabolic Adaptations. Front Physiol 2017; 8: 447
• 4 Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J. et al. Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-I and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001; 280: E383-E390
• 5 Hoppeler H. Moderate Load Eccentric Exercise; A Distinct Novel Training Modality. Front Physiol 2016; 7: 483
• 6 Roig M, O’Brien K, Kirk G. et al. The effects of eccentric versus concentric resistance training on muscle strength and mass in healthy adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2009; 43: 556-568
• 7 Isner-Horobeti ME, Dufour SP, Vautravers P, Geny B, Coudeyre E, Richard R. Eccentric exercise training: modalities, applications and perspectives. Sports Med 2013; 43: 483-512
• 8 Elmer SJ, Danvind J, Holmberg HC. Development of a novel eccentric arm cycle ergometer for training the upper body. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45: 206-211
• 9 Lytle LL, Dannenbring JL, Kilgas MA, Elmer SJ. Eccentric Arm Cycling: A Potential Exercise for Wheelchair Users. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2019; 100: 914-922
• 10 Elmer SJ, Marshall CS, McGinnis KR, Van Haitsma TA, LaStayo PC. Eccentric arm cycling: physiological characteristics and potential applications with healthy populations. Eur J Appl Physiol 2013; 113: 2541-2552
• 11 Schoenfeld BJ, Ogborn DI, Vigotsky AD, Franchi MV, Krieger JW. Hypertrophic Effects of Concentric vs. Eccentric Muscle Actions: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31: 2599-2608
• 12 Ansari M, Hardcastle S, Myers S, Williams AD. The Health and Functional Benefits of Eccentric versus Concentric Exercise Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Sports Sci Med 2023; 22: 288-309
• 13 da Silva LSL, Gonçalves LDS, Alves Campos PH. et al. Comparison Between Eccentric vs. Concentric Muscle Actions On Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2025; 39: 115-134
• 14 Elmer SJ, Anderson DJ, Wakeham TR. et al. Chronic eccentric arm cycling improves maximum upper-body strength and power. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117: 1473-1483
• 15 Perret C, Käch M, Hertig-Godeschalk A, Ammann F. Strength and power adaptations of the upper body following 20 training sessions on an eccentric arm-crank ergometer. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124: 2777-2785
• 16 Leong CH, McDermott WJ, Elmer SJ, Martin JC. Chronic eccentric cycling improves quadriceps muscle structure and maximum cycling power. Int J Sports Med 2014; 35: 559-565
• 17 LaStayo PC, Pierotti DJ, Pifer J, Hoppeler H, Lindstedt SL. Eccentric ergometry: increases in locomotor muscle size and strength at low training intensities. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 278: R1282-R1288
• 18 Fedorov A, Beichel R, Kalpathy-Cramer J. et al. 3D Slicer as an image computing platform for the Quantitative Imaging Network. Magn Reson Imaging 2012; 30: 1323-1341
• 19 Koo TK, Li MY. A Guideline of Selecting and Reporting Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for Reliability Research. J Chiropr Med 2016; 15: 155-163
• 20 Weir JP. Quantifying test-retest reliability using the intraclass correlation coefficient and the SEM. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 231-240
• 21 Fritz CO, Morris PE, Richler JJ. Effect size estimates: current use, calculations, and interpretation. J Exp Psychol Gen 2012; 141: 2-18
• 22 Martin Ginis KA, Jörgensen S, Stapleton J. Exercise and sport for persons with spinal cord injury. Pm r 2012; 4: 894-900
• 23 van Drongelen S, de Groot S, Veeger HE. et al. Upper extremity musculoskeletal pain during and after rehabilitation in wheelchair-using persons with a spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2006; 44: 152-159
• 24 Higbie EJ, Cureton KJ, Warren GL, Prior B.M. Effects of concentric and eccentric training on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, and neural activation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1996; 81: 2173-2181
• 25 Seger JY, Arvidsson B, Thorstensson A. Specific effects of eccentric and concentric training on muscle strength and morphology in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1998; 79: 49-57
• 26 Wang Z, Destro A, Petersson S, Cenni F, Wang R. In vivo 3D muscle architecture quantification based on 3D freehand ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. J Biomech 2023; 152: 111567
• 27 Whitta G, Liang J, Stott NS, Mirjalili SA, Battin M, Williams SA. The reliability of the measurement of muscle volume using magnetic resonance imaging in typically developing infants by two raters. Sci Rep 2022; 12: 18191
• 28 Vikne H, Refsnes PE, Ekmark M. et al. Muscular performance after concentric and eccentric exercise in trained men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1770-1781
• 29 Farthing JP, Chilibeck PD. The effect of eccentric training at different velocities on cross-education. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 570-577
• 30 Kim SY, Ko JB, Farthing JP, Butcher SJ. Investigation of supraspinatus muscle architecture following concentric and eccentric training. J Sci Med Sport 2015; 18: 378-382
• 31 Moore DR, Young M, Phillips SM. Similar increases in muscle size and strength in young men after training with maximal shortening or lengthening contractions when matched for total work. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012; 112: 1587-1592
• 32 Nickols-Richardson SM, Miller LE, Wootten DF, Ramp WK, Herbert WG. Concentric and eccentric isokinetic resistance training similarly increases muscular strength, fat-free soft tissue mass, and specific bone mineral measurements in young women. Osteoporos Int 2007; 18: 789-796
• 33 Reggiani C, Schiaffino S. Muscle hypertrophy and muscle strength: dependent or independent variables? A provocative review. Eur J Transl Myol 2020; 30: 9311
• 34 Rodriguez C, Mota JD, Palmer TB, Heymsfield SB, Tinsley GM. Skeletal muscle estimation: A review of techniques and their applications. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2024; 44: 261-284
• 35 Mijnarends DM, Meijers JM, Halfens RJ. et al. Validity and reliability of tools to measure muscle mass, strength, and physical performance in community-dwelling older people: a systematic review. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2013; 14: 170-178
• 36 Layec G, Venturelli M, Jeong EK, Richardson RS. The validity of anthropometric leg muscle volume estimation across a wide spectrum: from able-bodied adults to individuals with a spinal cord injury. J Appl Physiol 2014; 116: 1142-1147
• 37 Erlandson MC, Lorbergs AL, Mathur S, Cheung AM. Muscle analysis using pQCT, DXA and MRI. Eur J Radiol 2016; 85: 1505-1511