Method and Materials
Cohort of Patients
A cohort comprising 575 patients from unrelated families suspected of having VWD was
enrolled in year 2021. These patients were referred to the Bonn Haemophilia Center
at the University Clinic Bonn, the Coagulation Center Rhein-Ruhr (GZRR) in Germany,
and several other centers across the country. Patients were recruited based on a VWD
diagnosis established by the treating physician and confirmed through laboratory tests
in accordance with the updated ISTH-SSC VWF guidelines.[26 ] Inclusion criteria required patients to meet the diagnostic thresholds outlined
in these guidelines, including specific VWF antigen levels and activity assays. The
study primarily included individuals with inherited VWD, including both males and
females. A small number of patients (5 out of 196) were confirmed to have acquired
VWD after genetic testing and consultation with the treating physicians during the
study. Although VWD has an autosomal inheritance pattern, women are more frequently
diagnosed due to menstrual bleeding and bleeding after childbirth, leading to their
overrepresentation in our cohort (approximately 60% female and 40% male, based on
rough estimates). Following this analysis, 417 individuals were confirmed to have
VWD. Among these, 196 index patients (IPs) were identified as having type 2 VWD, with
their genotype and phenotype data detailed in this report. The patients were further
subclassified based on laboratory phenotypes as well as genetic analysis.[26 ]
[35 ]
[36 ] Additionally, 221 IPs were classified as having quantitative VWD (types 1 and 3),
and their results were published elsewhere.[37 ]
The current study was prospectively designed and approved by the local ethics committee
(vote 091/09). Informed consent was obtained from all patients in accordance with
the Declaration of Helsinki, and assent was obtained for enrolled children following
the prevailing regulations in Germany.
Blood samples from IPs and their family members were collected using both sodium citrate
and EDTA tubes.
Laboratory Evaluations
All laboratory tests were conducted at the source clinic attended by the patient.
These included measurements of VWF antigen (VWF:Ag), VWF platelet-dependent activity
(VWF activity [VWF:Ac]) assessed via recombinant GPIb and ristocetin (VWF:GPIbR),
gain-of-function mutated GPIb (VWF:GPIbM), or VWF ristocetin cofactor assay (VWF:RCo),
FVIII clotting activity (FVIII:C), and VWF collagen (type I or III) binding (VWF:CB).
The levels of VWF:Ag and VWF:GPIbM were determined using BCS XP or Atellica Coag 360
coagulation analyzer (Siemens Healthcare, Germany) or by applying HemosIL AcuStar
VWF:Ag and vWF:GP1bR assays (Instrumentation Laboratory, Werfen, Germany) following
the manufacturer's instructions. The VWF:RCo was performed using in-house aggregometry-based
assays, as detailed elsewhere.[38 ] VWF:CB was determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (Technoclone, Austria;
or Hyphen Biomed, France) or the HemosIL AcuStar VWF:CB assay (Instrumentation Laboratory,
Werfen, Germany) in accordance with the manufacturers' guidelines. The FVIII:C was
assessed by various techniques, either using a one-stage clotting assay (OSCA), or
chromogenic substrate assay (CSA), as described elsewhere.[39 ]
The distribution of VWF multimers was determined through gel electrophoresis using
1.3 and 1.6% sodium dodecyl sulfate agarose gels, as previously outlined.[38 ]
[40 ]
DNA Analysis
Genetic analyses were performed at two laboratories, namely, the Department of Molecular
Haemostaseology at the University Hospital Bonn and the GZRR center. Peripheral blood
was used to isolate genomic DNA employing the Blood Core Kit (Qiagen, Germany). Sequence
variations in the VWF were identified through direct sequencing, while the detection of large rearrangements
utilized the multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) technique or
assessment of copy number variations (CNVs). Sanger sequencing methodology was applied
for VWF analysis in patients investigated prior to 2016 (approximately 14% of IPs), whereas
next-generation sequencing (NGS) was employed for the analysis of VWF in patients inspected from 2017 onwards (approximately 86% of IPs). In both strategies,
the entire VWF , encompassing all 52 exons, intron/exon boundaries, and promoter regions, was analyzed.
Sanger Sequencing
The sequencing of the entire VWF was conducted using an ABI Prism 3130 genetic analyzer (Applied Biosystems by Life
Technologies, Germany).[38 ]
[41 ] Subsequently, the generated sequences were aligned against the reference sequence
using SeqScape Version 2.7 (Applied Biosystems by Life Technologies, Germany) to identify
variations in the VWF .
Targeted NGS Analysis
Mini-Seq genome sequencer (Illumina, USA) was employed for the targeted NGS analysis,
and the data were assessed by SeqPilot tool (JSI Medical Systems, Ettenheim, Germany).
All detected variants were additionally verified by Sanger sequencing.
Large DNA Rearrangements Analysis
In cases where DNA sequencing failed to reveal any VWF variation, an additional analysis
was performed to detect large deletions and duplications using MLPA and CNV evaluation.
The SALSA MLPA kits (MRC-Holland, Netherlands) were utilized following the manufacturer's
recommendations, and dosages were analyzed using Coffalyser (V5.2) software (MRC-Holland,
Netherlands). The evaluation of CNVs was performed through SeqPilot (JSI Medical Systems
GmbH).[42 ]
Variant Curation
The pathogenicity of VWF variants was assessed based on the established criteria of the American College of
Medical Genetics (ACMG) and the Association for Molecular Pathology (AMP).[43 ] To confirm the novelty of the identified VWF variants, a thorough cross-referencing
was conducted against various comprehensive databases and published literature. These
references encompassed disease-specific databases such as the Human Gene Mutation
Database (HGMD, https://www.hgmd.cf.ac.uk/ac/index.php ) and the Leiden Open Variation Database (LOVD, https://databases.lovd.nl/shared/genes ). Additionally, searches were extended to population databases, including the ClinVar
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/ ) and the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD, https://gnomad.broadinstitute.org/ ). These searches were executed in May 2023.[44 ]
[45 ] DNA variations were considered potential pathogenic candidates if their minor allele
frequency (MAF) was found to be below 1% in the population databases.
Bioinformatic Prediction Assessment
To assess the potential impact of missense and splice variants on VWF structure and
function, the online tool Ensembl Variant Effect Predictor (VEP) was employed (https://www.ensembl.org/info/docs/tools/vep/index.html , accessed in May 2024). VEP integrates bioinformatic prediction tools, including
Polymorphism Phenotyping-2 (PolyPhen-2), Sorting Intolerant From Tolerant (SIFT),
Mutation Taster, and Splice Artificial Intelligence (SpliceAI).[46 ]
[47 ]
[48 ]
[49 ]
[50 ]
[51 ]
[52 ] The bioinformatic tool ConSurf (https://consurf.tau.ac.il/consurf_index.php , accessed in April 2022) was additionally employed to determine the evolutionary
conservation of nucleic acid positions at the DNA level.
In Silico Structural Analysis of Novel Variants
We conducted a structural analysis of novel VWF variants across the A1, A2, D2, D3,
A3, and C4 domains using relevant Protein Data Bank (PDB) structures to assess their
impact on stability, multimerization, and binding functions. For the A1 domain, we
used PDB: 1AUQ and PDB: 1SQ0 to analyze its interaction with GPIbα and overall domain
stability.[53 ]
[54 ] A2 and A3 variants were examined using PDB: 3GXB and PDB: 4DMU, respectively.[55 ]
[56 ] Structural insights into the D2 and D3 domain variants were obtained from PDB IDs:
7ZWH and 6N29, investigating their impact on VWF multimerization and VWF tubule helical
structures.[57 ]
[58 ] Since the C2 domain lacks a biophysical structure, the p.Cys2565Ser was analyzed
on an AlphaFold 3 modeled structure of the C2 domain.[59 ] C4 domain variants were analyzed using PDB: 6FWN, focusing on structural integrity
and interactions with platelet integrin αIIbβ3.[60 ]
[61 ]
Visualization, structural analysis, and rendering were performed using YASARA View.[62 ]
Results
Our current cohort of type 2 VWD comprised 196 IPs, totaling 247 patients including
family members. Following ISTH-SSC guidelines, this subgroup includes 86 IPs classified
as type 2A (44%), 27 IPs as type 2N (14%), 24 IPs as type 2B (12%), 17 IPs as type
2M (9%), and an additional 42 IPs (21%) demonstrating qualitative deficiencies in
VWF with an unclear phenotype that could not be easily classified into one of the
former subclasses; hence, they were considered unclassified (U) ([Fig. 1A ]). At the time of recruitment for the current study, the cohort's demographic analysis
revealed mean ages of 36.58 years (95% CI: 31.85 to 41.30 years) for type 2A, 41.38
years (95% CI: 31.36 to 51.40 years) for type 2B, 36.62 years (95% CI: 26.07 to 47.18
years) for type 2M VWD, 38.68 years (95% CI: 33.42 to 43.93 years) for the type 2N
VWD sub-cohort, and 38.36 years (95% CI: 31.19 to 45.52 years) for the individuals
with unclassified VWD type (type U). The putative mutations were identified in 187
out of 196 type 2 VWD individuals (approximately 95%). In total, 222 VWF variants
(counting 114 distinctive variants) were identified in the type 2 VWD cohort, the
majority of which were missense variants (84%).
Fig. 1 Subtype spectrum and summary of phenotype profile of 196 patients diagnosed with
VWD type 2. (A ) Frequency spectrum of type 2 VWD subtypes in the current cohort. Type 2A was the
most common subtype (44%), followed by 2N (14%), 2B (12%), and 2M (9%). Additionally,
21% of patients were not categorized into the defined subtypes and are indicated as
unclassified (U, 21%). (B ) Summary of subtype composition along with the location of detected VWF variants
and laboratory phenotype profile for each subtype of type 2 VWD presented in this
cohort. For all presented laboratory parameters—VWF:Ag (IU/dL; %), VWF:AC (IU/dL;
%), VWF:Ac/VWF:Ag ratio, FVIII:C (IU/dL; %), FVIII:C/VWF:Ag ratio, VWF:CB (IU/dL;
%), and VWF:CB/VWF:Ag ratio—values are reported as the mean, with the lowest and highest
values indicated in parentheses. For subcategories represented by only a single index
patient (e.g., type 2B, and cases with dual mutations 2B/2N), individual values are
provided instead of a range. The type 2A subtype is intricately subdivided into IIA,
IIC, IID, and IIE based on distinct underlying pathologic mechanisms. IIA is caused
by increased proteolysis by ADAMTS13 in the A2 domain, IIC is linked to multimerization
defects from mutations in D1-D2 domains, IID results from mutations affecting dimerization
in the cystine knot (CK), and IIE is a consequence of impaired VWF multimerization
due to mutations occurring in the D3 domain. %, IU/dL; FVIII:C, FVIII coagulant activities;
IPs, index patients; VWD, von Willebrand disease; VWF, von Willebrand factor; VWF:Ac,
VWF binding activity to platelet GPIb; VWF:Ag, VWF antigen; VWF:CB, VWF binding activity
to collagen.
VWF Variant Spectrum and Phenotypic Laboratory Profiles in Type 2A VWD
Our type 2A VWD cohort consists of 116 patients from 86 families, displaying VWF:Ac/VWF:Ag
ratio ranging from 0.1 to 0.7, with a mean of 0.40 ± 0.02 ([Fig. 1B ]), along with impaired VWF multimers where multimer analysis was available (available
for nearly 70% of IPs).
VWF variants were identified in 91% of individuals (78/86). A total of 91 variants,
including 64 distinct variations, were detected. These included 70 missense variations
(approximately 78%), 13 variants leading to null alleles (approximately 15%), 3 promoter
variants (approximately 3%, all detected as the second variant), 3 gene conversions
(approximately 3%), and 1 silent variant (approximately 1%) ([Fig. 2A ]).
Fig. 2 Mutation detection rate, zygosity pattern, and frequency spectrum of VWF variants
in type 2 subtype cohorts. (A ) The pie charts illustrate the success rate of mutation detection in each sub-cohort,
including types 2A, 2B, 2M, 2N, and unclassified (U). (B ) The pie charts display the spectrum of variant types, including missense variants,
null alleles, gene conversions, silent variants, and promoter variants identified
in each VWD subtype (2A, 2B, 2M, 2N, and U). In type 2A, null alleles encompassed
three small deletions, three small duplications, two splice site variations, two large
deletions, two small insertions, and one deletion/insertion. IPs, index patients;
VWD, von Willebrand disease.
Beyond the ISTH classification, type 2A VWD can be further divided into four subgroups
(IIA, IIC, IID, and IIE), each reflecting different molecular mechanisms that impair
multimer elongation.[30 ]
[63 ]
[64 ] The classification into these subgroups is primarily based on the VWF domain containing
the variant and is further confirmed by multimer analysis, when available. In our
cohort, 34 of 86 individuals were classified as type 2A/IIA, with A2 domain variants
that may induce increased VWF proteolysis by ADAMTS13. Common variants in this group
included p.Arg1597Trp (seven IPs), p.Val1604Asp (four IPs), p.Ile1628Thr (four IPs),
p.Gly1609Arg (three IPs), and p.Ser1506Leu (two IPs) ([Table 1.I ]) ([Fig. 3 ]). Most patients showed a lack of HMWMs and increased intensity in the side bands
of the triplet structures. A total of 13 individuals were classified as type 2A/IIE,
with D3 domain variants likely disrupting VWF alignment for multimerization. In this
group, predominant variants involved missense mutations affecting cysteine residues
in the D3 domain, accounting for 9 out of 13 IPs. These included p.Cys1099Tyr (three
IPs), p.Cys1157Gly (one IP), and p.Cys1173Phe (one IP), or the introduction of cysteine,
such as Tyr1146Cys (three IPs) and p.Arg1145Cys (one IP) ([Table 1.I ]) ([Fig. 3 ]). Eight individuals were identified as type 2A/IIC, with variants in the VWF propeptide,
D1, and D2 domains, impairing multimerization. These included missense variants (five
IPs), small deletions (two IPs), and a splice site variant (one IP) ([Table 1.I ]). The remaining 31 type 2A individuals were not sub-classified. This group included
patients with VWF variants located in the A1 or C domains (eight IPs), those with
no identified VWF variant (eight IPs), multiple variants (11 IPs) ([Table 1.II ]), or those with ambiguous genotypes (four IPs), such as p.Arg924Gln and gene conversions,
where the phenotype could not be clearly explained ([Fig. 1B ])([Table 1.I ]). Upon further investigation and communication with the treating physicians, five
of the eight mutation-negative IPs were later confirmed to have acquired VWD. Genetic
analysis was performed for these patients to exclude pathogenic variants in the VWF
gene.
Table 1
Detailed genotypic and phenotypic characteristics in type 2A VWD sub-cohort
I. Type 2A patients with detected single VWF variant, constituting majority of index
patients: 67 out of 86, along with mutation-negative index patients: 8 out of 86
IP #
Subtype
Nt change
aa change
Exon/Intron
Domain
Zygosity
Mutation type
Blood group
VWF:Ag (IU/dL)
VWF:Ac (IU/dL)
FVIII:C (IU/dL)
1
Type 2A (IIC)
c.421G > A
p.Asp141Asn
5
D1-VWD1
htz
Missense
na
11.4
4
na
2
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1309_1326del
p.Asp437_Arg442del
12
D2-VWD2
htz
Small Del.
A
201
124
244CSA
3
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1110–6_1110–5insCN
–
-/9
D1-E1
htz
Splice Site
na
49
na
na
4
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1309_1326del
p.Asp437_Arg442del
12
D2-VWD2
htz
Small Del.
A
117
52
104CSA
5
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1450C > TN
p.His484Tyr
13
D1-C8–1
htz
Missense
na
27
7
na
6
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1835T > GN
p.Val612Gly
15
D2-C8–2
hmz
Missense
O
63
39RCo
88
7
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1855C > TN
p.Arg619Cys
15
D2-C8–2
htz
Missense
A
28
14
33CSA
8
Type 2A (IIC)
c.1915C > TN
p.Arg639Cys
15
D2-C8–2
htz
Missense
O
68
49
76OSCA
9
Type 2A
c.2771G > A*
p.Arg924Gln
21
D3-VWD3
htz
Missense
na
17
10
51
10–12
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3296G > AN
p.Cys1099Tyr
25
D3-C8–3
htz
Missense
O/na/A
131/na/265
32/na/44
117OSCA /na/183CSA
13
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3314C > AN
p.Ala1105Asp
25
D3-C8–3
htz
Missense
na
23
na
45
14
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3362G > T
p.Arg1121Met
25
D3-C8–3
htz
Missense
A
11
5
21CSA
15
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3390C > T
p.Cys1130Cys
26
D3-TIL3
htz
Silent
A
41
na
82OSCA
16
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3433C > T
p.Arg1145Cys
26
D3-C8–3
htz
Missense
na
65
39
78CSA
17
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3434G > CN
p.Arg1145Pro
26
D3-TIL-3
htz
Missense
B
17
5GPIbR
22
18–20
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3437A > G
p.Tyr1146Cys
26
D3-TIL-3
htz
Missense
na/A/A
19.3 /12/29
9/5/18
30/24CSA /na
21
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3469T > GN
p.Cys1157Gly
26
D3-TIL-3
htz
Missense
na
27
22RCo
57
22
Type 2A (IIE)
c.3518G > T
p.Cys1173Phe
26
D3-TIL-3
htz
Missense
na
23
16
37CSA
23
Type 2A
c.3686T > G*
c.3692A > C
p.Val1229Gly
p.Asn1231Thr
28
28
D3-E3
D3-E3
htz
htz
Conversion
O
19
9RCo
37OSCA
24
Type 2A
c.3967_3969delN
p.Asp1323del
28
A1
htz
Small Del.
O
14
6RCo
12
25, 26
2A
c.4027A > G*
c.4079T > C
c.4105T > A
c.4133C > T
c.4135C > T
p.Ile1343Val
p.Val1360Ala
p.Phe1369Ile
p.Ser1378Phe
p.Arg1379Cys
28
A1
htz
Conversion
O/O
23/10
11RCo /6
67OSCA /14.7
27
Type 2A
c.4042_4062dupN
p.Lys1348_Val1354dup
28
A1
htz
Small Dupl.
A
19
9RCo
24
28
Type 2A
c.4078G > TN
p.Val1360Phe
28
A1
htz
Missense
A
39
7
61CSA
29
Type 2A
c.4145T > AN
p.Leu1382Gln
28
A1
htz
Missense
na
19
10
35
30, 31
Type 2A
c.4151T > GN
p.Leu1384Arg
28
A1
htz
Missense
na/na
15/14
6RCo /6
28/na
32
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4292_4299delinsGGATCN
p.Gln1431_Pro1433delinsArgIle
28
A2
htz
Del. + Ins.
O
40
24
61CSA
33
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4513G > A
p.Gly1505Arg
28
A2
htz
Missense
O
21
4
27CSA
34, 35
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4517C > T
p.Ser1506Leu
28
A2
htz
Missense
-/A
55/65
35RCo /10RCo
60/24
36
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4541T > G
p.Phe1514Cys
28
A2
htz
Missense
O
40
16
51CSA
37
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4541T > CN
p.Phe1514Ser
28
A2
htz
Missense
B
22
14
27CSA
38
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4589T > GN
p.Val1530Gly
28
A2
htz
Missense
na
30
na
na
39
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4645G > A
p.Glu1549Lys
28
A2
htz
Missense
na
110
14
103CSA
40
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4690C > T
p.Arg1564Trp
28
A2
htz
Missense
A
46
31
57CSA
41
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4718G > TN
p.Gly1573Val
28
A2
htz
Missense
B
56
28
70CSA
42
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4730A > CN
p.Asn1577Thr
28
A2
htz
Missense
A
45
14.0
41CSA
43–49
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4789C > T
p.Arg1597Trp
28
A2
htz
Missense
A/na/A/
O/B/na/
O
22/30/26/
64/24/16/
56
13/11RCo /9/
16/6/6/
15
29/47/30CSA /
66CSA /32CSA /20CSA /
47
50
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4790G > A
p.Arg1597Gln
28
A2
htz
Missense
na
na
11
na
51–54
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4811T > AN
p.Val1604Asp
28
A2
htz
Missense
O/A/O/
O
27/24/35/
32
8/9/11/
7
55CSA /57CSA /62CSA /
53CSA
55–57
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4825G > A
p.Gly1609Arg
28
A2
htz
Missense
na/B/O
71/46/53
17/12/15
na/60CSA /46CSA
58
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4880C > GN
p.Pro1627Arg
28
A2
htz
Missense
O
19
4
21CSA
59–62
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4883T > C
p.Ile1628Thr
28
A2
htz
Missense
na/A/O/
na
28.7/38/17/
55
5/7/5/
9
32/37CSA /20CSA /
87CSA
63
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4885G > A
p.Gly1629Arg
28
A2
htz
Missense
B
45
8GPIbR
36
64
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4892G > A
p.Gly1631Asp
28
A2
htz
Missense
na
34
9
42
65
Type 2A (IIA)
c.4912G > A
p.Glu1638Lys
28
A2
htz
Missense
na
33
15
na
66
Type 2A
c.7060T > GN
p.Cys2354Gly
41
C2
htz
Missense
na
56
39
89
67
Type 2A
c.7988G > C*
p.Arg2663Pro
49
C6
htz
Missense
na
9,3
4
41
68–75
Type 2A
None
–
–
–
–
–
A/O/na/
na/A/na/
A/A
24/41/10/
94/41/17/
17/26
na/10/na/
14RCo /26RCo /7/
8/6
29/25/na/
150/26/na/
13/28CSA
II. Type 2A patients carrying two VWF variants, comprising 11 out of 86 index patients
#
Subtype
Nt change
aa change
Exon/Intron
Domain
Zygosity
Mutation type
Blood group
VWF:Ag (IU/dL)
VWF:Ac (IU/dL)
FVIII:C (IU/dL)
1
Type 2A*
c.-1224G > AN
c.-2522C > T
–
–
–
htz
htz
Regulatory
Regulatory
na
40
17
71CSA
2
Type 2A
c.-2522C > T
c.3586T > C
p.Cys1196Arg
27
D3-TIL-3
htz
htz
Regulatory
Missense
A
14
8RCo
34
3
Type 2A
c.1324C > TN
c.6536C > T
p.Arg442Cys
p.Ser2179PheC
12
37
D2-VWD2
D4-C8–4
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
na
na
17
15
4
Type 2A
c.1681_1684dupN
c.5278G > A
p.Leu562Argfs
p.Val1760IleC
14
30
D2-VWD2
A3
htz
htz
Small Dupl.
Missense
na
64
39
104OSCA
5
Type 2A
c.1682_1729 + 33N
c.1722_1723insAN
p.Arg575Thrfs*16
15
14
D2
D2-C8–2
htz
htz
Insertion / Splice Site
Small Ins.
na
90
52
107OSCA
6
Type 2A/2N
c.2560C > T
c.7448dupN
p.Arg854Trp
p.Tyr2483*
20
44
D'-E'
C3
htz
htz
Missense
Small Dupl.
na
9
1
7
7
Type 2A
c.2546 + 1G > AN
c.5092G > TN
p.Gly1698Cys
19
29
D'
A3
htz
htz
Splice Site
Missense
O
27
16
31CSA
8
Type 2A /2N
c.2561G > A
c.4811T > AN
p.Arg854Gln
p.Val1604Asp
20
28
D'-E'
A2
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
A
16
8
12CSA
9
Type 2A
c.2771G > A
c.4789 C > T
p.Arg924Gln
Arg1597Trp
21
28
D3-VWD3
A2
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
A
80
26RCo
118OSCA
10
Type 2A
c.3610C > TN
c.3839T > CN
p.Arg1204Trp
p.Phe1280Ser
27
28
D3-E3
A1
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
na
26
14
34CSA
11
Type 2A
Del. 8N
Del. 52N
–
8
52
D1
CK
htz
htz
Large Del.
Large Del.
A
114
27
64CSA
Abbreviations: aa, amino acid; C, indicating variants accelerating VWF clearance;
Del, deletion; Dupl, duplication; hmz, homozygous; htz, heterozygous; N, novel variants;
Nt, nucleotide.
Notes: The D domains exhibit a consistent architecture, featuring VW domains, C8 folds,
TIL structures, and E modules. Notably, exceptions occur in the D' domain, which lacks
VW/C8, and the D4 domain, which lacks E but includes D4N.
The assessment of VWF binding activity to platelet GPIb (VWF:Ac) predominantly relied
on the VWF:GPIbM assay, which employs recombinant mutated GPIb (without ristocetin).
However, in specific instances, as indicated in the table, it was assessed using VWF:GPIbR,
a method employing recombinant wild-type GPIb in the presence of ristocetin or the
VWF:RCo assay. For some patients, the FVIII coagulant activities (FVIII:C) values
were determined through either the one-stage clotting assay (OSCA) or the chromogenic
substrate assay (CSA). Unmarked FVIII:C values signify that they were assessed using
the one-stage assay based on actin FS.
The term “na” indicates when the laboratory value was not available. For patients
for whom VWF:Ac or VWF:Ag data were missing, classification was performed based on
multimer analysis, collagen-binding assays, or both, further supported by genetic
analysis. The exception was the patient carrying the p.Val1530Gly variant, for whom
VWF binding assays and multimer analysis were unavailable. However, our in vitro protein
expression analysis confirmed increased ADAMTS13 cleavage, supporting the classification
as type 2A-IIA (unpublished data). The “*” indicates that the genotype of the patients
carrying these variants remains ambiguous, as these variants are known for causing
a quantitative deficiency of VWF and cannot explain the laboratory phenotype observed
in these patients. It is possible that patients carry a second DNA variation outside
the VWF coding region.
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of the von Willebrand factor (VWF) protein structure and
distribution of VWF variants detected in a cohort of type 2 von Willebrand disease
(VWD). The schematic illustrates the domain organization of the VWF protein, including
domains D1, D2, D', D3, A1, A2, A3, D4, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, and CK. VWF variants
identified in patients with type 2 VWD (subtypes 2A, 2B, 2M, 2N, and unclassified
[U]) are mapped to their corresponding domains. (1) Novel VWF variants are displayed
in red and marked with a superscript N. (2) Variants detected in multiple patients
are followed by a lowercase n in parentheses indicating the number of patients carrying
that variant (e.g., (n = 3)). (3) A superscript C indicates variants associated with accelerated VWF clearance.
(4) A star (*) denotes variants that cannot fully explain the patient's phenotype,
as these are linked to quantitative VWF deficiency rather than type 2 VWD, suggesting
an ambiguous genotype. (5) Compound heterozygous variants are underlined. (6) For
type 2N VWD, variants are labeled as homozygous (hmz), heterozygous (htz), or compound
heterozygous (underlined). (7) Type 2A generally follows a dominant inheritance pattern,
but some patients in our cohort carry more than one variant. Missense variants detected
in these patients are presented in a blue-green box and categorized as type 2A with
dual variants without further subclassification.
VWF Variant Spectrum and Phenotypic Laboratory Profiles in 2B VWD
The type 2B VWD sub-cohort comprised of 26 patients, originating from 24 families.
Type 2B VWD sub-cohort was characterized by low VWF activity to antigen ratios and
loss or reduction of HMW VWF multimers. In accordance with the recommended diagnostic
algorithm, the diagnosis of type 2B VWD was further confirmed through genetic testing.
In our sub-cohort of patients with type 2B VWD, the VWF:Ac/VWF:Ag ratios ranged from
0.2 to 0.7, with a mean value of 0.40 ± 0.04 ([Fig. 1B ]). Multimer analysis, available for most of the patients (more than 70% of IPs),
of this sub-cohort of patients with type 2B VWD revealed a loss of large multimers.
In all 24 IPs diagnosed with type 2B VWD, VWF variants were identified ([Fig. 2A ]). Recurrent mutations were observed in this group, resulting in the detection of
only nine VWF variants, all of which were missense mutations ([Fig. 2B ]). Notably, these included the recurrent variant p.Arg1306Trp (detected in eight
individuals), p.Arg1306Leu, p.Arg1308Ser (in two individuals), p.Arg1308Cys (in three
individuals), p.Arg1308Pro, p.Val1316Met (identified in six individuals), p.Arg1341Gln
(in two individuals), and p.Arg1374Cys. Among these type 2B VWD variants, the variants
p.Arg1306Trp, p.Arg1308Cys, p.Val1316Met, and p.Arg1374Cys are also known for accelerating
VWF clearance from the circulation ([Table 2 ]) ([Fig. 3 ]).[65 ]
[66 ]
Table 2
Detailed genotypic and phenotypic characteristics in type 2B VWD sub-cohort
IP #
Nt change
aa change
Exon
Domain
Zygosity
Mutation type
Blood group
VWF:Ag (IU/dL)
VWF:Ac (IU/dL)
FVIII:C (IU/dL)
1
c.2561G > A
c.3916C > T
p.Arg854Gln
p.Arg1306TrpC
20
28
D'-E'
A1
htz
Missense
Missense
A
17
4
26CSA
2–8
c.3916C > T
p.Arg1306TrpC
28
A1
htz
Missense
A/na/O/B/
O/O/A
21/37/48/44/
22/22/27
13RCo /na/33/25/
5/6/8
37/na/46/135CSA /
27CSA /20CSA /33CSA
9
c.3917G > T
p.Arg1306Leu
28
A1
htz
Missense
A
85
56
30
10,11
c.3922C > A
p.Arg1308Ser
28
A1
htz
Missense
O/A
34/77
na/50
64CSA /82CSA
12–14
c.3922C > T
p.Arg1308CysC
28
A1
htz
Missense
na /AB/A
42/30/14
15RCo /6/10
48/41CSA /26CSA
15
c.3923G > C
p.Arg1308Pro
28
A1
htz
Missense
B
26
5
25.0CSA
16–21
c.3946G > A
p.Val1316MetC
28
A1
htz
Missense
B/O/A/na/
A/na
63/62/25/58/
48/36
10/22RCo /6/22/
11/9
82CSA /37/26/54/
46CSA /36CSA
22, 23
c.4022G > A
p.Arg1341Gln
28
A1
htz
Missense
A/O
42/32
17/15
51CSA /55CSA
24
c.4120C > T
p.Arg1374CysC
28
A1
htz
Missense
na
19
8
na
Abbreviations: aa, amino acid; C, indicating variants accelerating VWF clearance;
htz, heterozygous; N, novel variants; Nt, nucleotide.
Notes: The D domains exhibit a consistent architecture, featuring VW domains, C8 folds,
TIL structures, and E modules. Notably, exceptions occur in the D' domain, which lacks
VW/C8, and the D4 domain, which lacks E but includes D4N.
The evaluation of VWF binding activity to platelet GPIb (VWF:Ac) predominantly hinged
on the VWF:GPIbM assay, performed with recombinant mutated GPIb and without ristocetin.
However, in specific instances, as indicated in the table, it was assessed using the
VWF:RCo assay. The measurement of FVIII coagulant activities (FVIII:C) was conducted
using either one-stage assay based on actin FS (unmarked) or by chromogenic substrate
assay (marked by CSA).
The term “na” indicates when the laboratory value was not available. For patients
for whom VWF:Ac or VWF:Ag data were missing, classification was performed based on
multimer analysis, collagen-binding assays, or both, further supported by genetic
analysis.
Exceptionally, one of the individuals showed an additional variant known as a type
2N variant (p.Arg854Gln), in addition to the type 2B-specific VWF variant (p.Arg1306Trp),
as compound heterozygous. This patient exhibited the lowest VWF:Ag (17%) and VWF:Ac
(4%) levels, as well as an FVIII:C much lower than the average value of this sub-cohort
(26%) ([Fig. 1B ]).
VWF Variant Spectrum and Phenotypic Laboratory Profiles in Type 2M VWD
The type 2M VWD sub-cohort comprised 23 patients from 17 families, characterized by
diminished VWF activity to antigen ratios and normal or with ultra-large multimers
([Table 3 ]). Several patients displayed VWF smeary multimer pattern. An exception was noted
in a patient with a subtle loss of large multimers, characterized by a novel missense
variant in domain A1 (p.Asp1283Asn), resulting in a very low VWF:Ac/VWF:Ag ratio (0.2)
but a normal VWF:CB/VWF:Ag ratio (0.9).
Table 3
Detailed genotypic and phenotypic characteristics in type 2M VWD sub-cohort
IP #
Nt change
aa change
Exon
Domain
Zygosity
Mutation type
Blood group
VWF:Ag (IU/dL)
VWF:Ac (IU/dL)
FVIII:C (IU/dL)
VWF:CB (IU/dL)
1
c.3845T > C
p.Leu1282Pro
28
A1
htz
Missense
na
30
na
na
na
2
c.3847G > AN
p.Asp1283Asn
28
A1
htz
Missense
A
45
9
70CSA
38
3
c.4001G > A
p.Arg1334Gln
28
A1
htz
Missense
41na44
na
na
na
4
c.4037A > CN
p.Gln1346Pro
28
A1
htz
Missense
O
20
5
22CSA
20
5
c.4079T > C
c.4105T > A
c.4120C > T
c.4133C > T
p.Val1360Ala
p.Phe1369Ile
p.Ser1378Phe
p.Arg1374Cys
28
A1
htz
Conversion
B
23
11
39CSA
20
6, 7
c.4079T > C
c.4105T > A
c.4133C > T
c.4135C > T
p.Val1360Ala
p.Phe1369Ile
p.Ser1378Phe
p.Arg1379Cys
28
A1
htz
Conversion
O/O
52/12
18/8
44CSA /27CSA
39/11
8
c.4105T > A
p.Phe1369Ile
28
A1
htz
Missense
na
30
16
61CSA
43
9, 10
c.4195C > T
p.Arg1399Cys
28
A1
htz
Missense
B/B
91/73
28/23
105CSA /79CSA
88/57
11
c.4225G > T
p.Val1409Phe
28
A1
htz
Missense
O
21
9
32CSA
14
12–15*
c.5191T > A
p.Ser1731Thr
30
A3
htz
Missense
O/A/na/ na
23/47/94/na
21/46/89/50
52CSA /86CSA /126CSA /na
na/na/49/25
16
c.7694G > AN
p.Cys2565Ser
45
C4
htz
Missense
na
44
31
34CSA
39
17
None
–
–
–
–
–
na
49
40
45
15
Abbreviations: aa, amino acid; htz, heterozygous; N, novel variants; Nt, nucleotide;
VWF:CB, von Willebrand factor collagen binding assay.
Notes: The measurement of FVIII coagulant activities (FVIII:C) was conducted using
either one-stage assay based on actin FS (unmarked) or by chromogenic substrate assay
(marked by CSA).
*Previous research related to the p.Ser1731Thr variant showed a significantly reduced
binding to collagen type I, but a normal or only slightly decreased binding to collagen
type III in static and flow-based VWF:CB assays, respectively.[33 ]
The term “na” indicates when the laboratory value was not available. For patients
for whom VWF:Ac and VWF:Ag data were missing, classification was performed based on
multimer analysis, and supported by genetic analysis.
VWF variants were successfully identified in 16 out of 17 individuals (approximately
94%) ([Fig. 2A ]). VWF variants in the A1 domain was found in 12 type 2M individuals, causing platelet-binding
defects (2MGPIb subgroup) ([Fig. 1B ]). The mean VWF:Ac/Ag and VWF:CB/VWF:Ag ratios were 0.39 ± 0.05 and 0.92 ± 0.07,
respectively. This subgroup had eight distinct variants, including p.Leu1282Pro, p.Asp1283Asn,
p.Arg1334Gln, p.Gln1346Pro, p.Phe1369Ile, p.Arg1399Cys (two IPs), p.Val1409Phe, and
a gene conversion (three IPs) ([Table 3 ]) ([Fig. 3 ]). In four individuals, VWF variants in the A3 domain led to collagen-binding defects,
forming the 2MCB subgroup, with p.Ser1731Thr as the common variant.[33 ] Additionally, one individual with a C4 domain variant (p.Cys2565Ser) showed a normal
ratio profile but had ultra-large multimers, consistent with a type 2M phenotype ([Table 3 ]).
VWF Variant Spectrum and Phenotypic Laboratory Profiles in Type 2N VWD
Type 2N VWD, arising from mutations in the D'-D3 domains, interferes with VWF binding
to FVIII and is inherited in a recessive manner. The diagnosis of suspected type 2N
cases, in accordance with the ISTH-SSC VWF guidelines, were confirmed through DNA
testing. In our cohort of type 2 VWD patients, 27 IPs were suspected of having type
2N and displayed type 2N-specific variants. Of these, seven were either homozygous
or compound heterozygous for type 2N-specific VWF variants. Three individuals were
homozygous for the most common type 2N VWF variant, p.Arg854Gln. Additionally, three
individuals were compound heterozygous for the type 2N variants p.Arg816Trp and p.Arg854Gln,
and one individual was homozygous for p.Arg816Trp. Within this subset, VWF:Ag and
FVIII:C levels ranged from 50 to 166% and 2 to 25%, respectively, with a very low
FVIII:C/VWF:Ag ratio ranging from 0.01 to 0.4 (mean 0.26 ± 0.05). Moreover, our cohort
included individuals with compound heterozygosity for the common type 2N VWF variant
p.Arg854Gln in combination with quantitative VWF variant (nonsense, small deletion,
splice site variation, or the type 1-specific clearance variant p.Tyr1584Cys).[67 ] This group exhibited VWF:Ag and FVIII:C levels ranging from 29 to 74% and 10 to
50%, respectively, with an FVIII:C/VWF:Ag ratio ranging from 0.2 to 1.3 (mean 0.52 ± 0.16).
Furthermore, within the type 2N subgroup, 10 individuals were identified as heterozygous
for type 2N-specific variants, indicating a carrier state rather than a definitive
diagnosis of type 2N VWD. Among them, eight individuals carried the heterozygous p.Arg854Gln
variant—the most common type 2N VWF variant—while two carried the heterozygous p.Cys1225Gly
variant. Since type 2N VWD follows a recessive inheritance pattern, a clinical diagnosis
requires a homozygous or compound heterozygous state. Although these individuals were
initially classified as having type 2N VWD, further analysis confirmed their heterozygous
status, consistent with a carrier state. Notably, they exhibited a normal average
FVIII:C/VWF:Ag ratio. Additionally, three individuals in the type 2N subgroup carried
the heterozygous variant p.Arg760Cys, which affects the VWF propeptide cleavage site.[34 ] Furthermore, one patient with FVIII levels of 1% carried both a mutation in the
F8 gene and the type 2N VWD variant p.Arg854Gln in VWF, explaining the extremely low
FVIII levels despite unaffected VWF:Ag levels ([Fig. 2B ]) ([Table 4 ]).
Table 4
Detailed genotypic and phenotypic characteristics in type 2N VWD sub-cohort
IP #
Subtype
Nt change
aa change
Exon/Intron
Domain
Zygosity
Mutation type
Blood group
VWF:Ag (IU/dL)
VWF:Ac (IU/dL)
FVIII:C (IU/dL)
1
2N/1
c.-411T > CN
c. + 167G > T
c.2278C > T
-
-
p.Arg760Cys
-
-
17
Regulatory
Regulatory
D2-E2
htz
htz
htz
Regulatory
Regulatory
Missense
na
37
36
46CSA
2
2N/1
c.1117C > T
c.2561G > A
p.Arg373*
p.Arg854Gln
10
20
D1-E1
D'-E'
htz
htz
Nonsense
Missense
B
43
na
10OSCA
3, 4
Heterozygous 2N
c.2278C > T
p.Arg760Cys
17
D2-E2
htz
Missense
na/na
52/37
41/ 41
na/36CSA
5, 6
2N/1
c.2435del
c.2561G > A
p.Pro812Argfs*31
p.Arg854Gln
18
20
D'-TIL'
D'-E'
htz
htz
Small Del.
Missense
na/na
29/74
26/80
10CSA /40CSA
7
2N
c.2446C > T
p.Arg816Trp
19
D'TIL'
hmz
Missense
B
166
144
2
8–10
2N
c.2446C > T
c.2561G > A
p.Arg816Trp
p.Arg854Gln
19
20
D'-TIL'
D'-E'
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
A/A/na
61/93/50
59/107/55
25CSA /18CSA /15CSA
11–13
2N
c.2561G > A
p.Arg854Gln
20
D'-E'
hmz
Missense
O/O/na
74/59/55
79/59/45
18/16/16CSA
14–21
Heterozygous 2N
c.2561G > A
p.Arg854Gln
20
D'-E'
htz
Missense
O/O/na/
na /A/A/
O/B
55/67/93/
46/151/45/
49 /22
30Rco / 78GPIbR /48/
64/121/42/
41/26
56OSCA /88/76/
na/53CSA /11CSA /
23CSA /53CSA
22
2N/1
c.2561G > A
c.2649C > GN
p.Arg854Gln
p.Tyr883*
20
20
D'-E'
D3-VWD3
htz
htz
Missense
Nonsense
na
63
60
18CSA
23
2N/1
c.2561G > A
c.4751A > G
p.Arg854Gln
p.Tyr1584Cys
20
28
D'-E'
A2
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
A
40
54GPIbR
50
24
2N/1
c.2561G > A
c.6798 + 2T > AN
p.Arg.854Gln
-
20
/38
D'-E'
C1
htz
htz
Missense
Splice Site
AB
42
34
16
25
2N/Hemophilia A
c.2561G > A
p.Arg854Gln
20
D'-E'
htz
Missense
A
121
111RCo
1
26, 27
Heterozygous 2N
c.3673T > G
p.Cys1225Gly
27
D3-E3
htz
Missense
O/A
50/42
29/44
40CSA /69CSA
Abbreviations: aa, amino acid; Del, deletion; hmz, homozygous; htz, heterozygous;
N, novel variants; Nt, nucleotide.
Notes: The D domains exhibit a consistent architecture, featuring VW domains, C8 folds,
TIL structures, and E modules. Notably, exceptions occur in the D' domain, which lacks
VW/C8, and the D4 domain, which lacks E but includes D4N.
The assessment of VWF binding activity to platelet GPIb (VWF:Ac) predominantly relied
on the VWF:GPIbM assay, which employs recombinant mutated GPIb (without ristocetin).
However, in specific instances, as indicated in the table, it was assessed using VWF:GPIbR,
a method employing recombinant wild-type GPIb in the presence of ristocetin or the
VWF:RCo assay. For some patients, the FVIII coagulant activities (FVIII:C) values
were determined through either the one-stage clotting assay (OSCA) or the chromogenic
substrate assay (CSA). Unmarked FVIII:C values signify that they were assessed using
the one-stage assay based on actin FS.
The term “na” indicates when the laboratory value was not available. For patients
for whom VWF:Ac or VWF:Ag data were missing, classification was performed based on
multimer analysis, collagen-binding assays, or both, further supported by genetic
analysis.
Genetic Variations in VWD Patients with Unclassified (U) Phenotype
In our cohort of qualitative VWD patients, we encountered 42 IPs who could not be
definitively assigned to any specific VWD type. Consequently, they were classified
as type U VWD. The ambiguity in classification arose from two primary factors. First,
in many IPs within the type U group, detected mutations were consistently associated
with different VWD types (type 2M, 2A, 1C, or even 2B) across various population-based
studies, including our cohort. Two prominent examples are the VWF mutations p.Arg1315Cys
and p.Arg1374Cys, identified in nine and eight IPs, respectively ([Fig. 3 ]). Even within our cohort, IPs carrying these variants exhibited distinct phenotypic
characteristics. For example, nine IPs with the variant p.Arg1315Cys displayed a wide
range of VWF:Ac/VWF:Ag ratios, from 0.3 to 0.8. Second, in several IPs with novel
VWF variants, a clear phenotype for precise VWD classification was elusive ([Table 5 ]).
Table 5
Detailed genotypic and phenotypic characteristics in type U VWD subgroup
IP #
Subtype
Nt change
aa change
Exon/Intron
Domain
Zygosity
Mutation type
Blood group
VWF:Ag (IU/dL)
VWF:Ac (IU/dL)
FVIII:C (IU/dL)
1
U
c.2435del
c.3797C > T
p.Pro812Argfs*31
p.Pro1266LeuC
18
28
D'TIL'
D3-E3
htz
htz
Small Del.
Missense
na
17
13GPIbR
49
2
U
C.2625C > TN
p.Tyr875=
20
D3-VWD3
htz
Silent
O
17
15
18CSA
3
U (2A/2M/1C)
C.2771G > A
c.3943C > T
p.Arg924Gln
p.Arg1315Cys
21
28
D3-VWD3
A1
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
A
13
8
22CSA
4
U (2A/1)
c.3389G > A
p.Cys1130Tyr
26
D3-TIL-3
htz
Missense
na
14
14
23CSA
5
U (2A/1)
c.3389G > A
c.3539–10T > GN
p.Cys1130Tyr
-
26
26
D3-TIL-3
D3-TIL-3
htz
htz
Missense
Splice Site
na
17
16
20CSA
6–8
U (2A/1)
c.3437A > G
p.Tyr1146Cys
26
D3-TIL3
htz
Missense
A/na/na
17/17/17
17/35/26
22/35/71
9
U
c.3437A > G
c.3539–10T > GN
p.Tyr1146Cys
-
26
25
D3-TIL-3
D3-TIL-3
htz
htz
Missense
Splice Site
O
12
10
21CSA
10, 11
U
c.3586T > C
p.Cys1196Arg
27
D3-TIL-3
htz
Missense
A/O
21/18
18/12RCo
55OSCA /27
12
U (2M/2B/1)
c.3835G > A
p.Val1279Ile
28
A1
htz
Missense
na
7
na
8
13–21
U (2A/2M/1C)
c.3943C > T
p.Arg1315CysC
28
A1
htz
Missense
A/O/A/
na/AB/A/
O/A/A
12/20/20/
40/12/17/
13/10 /14
7/13RCo /15/
10/6/14/
8/6/4
26CSA /39/28OSCA /
na /26CSA /26CSA /
22CSA /12CSA /31CSA
22
U
c.4022G > A
c.5801T > G
p.Arg1341Gln
c.Val1934Gly
28
34
A1
D4
htz
htz
Missense
Missense
na
34
27RCo
95
23
U (2A/1/M)
c.4094T > C
p.Leu1365Pro
28
A1
hmz
Missense
O
12
4
14CSA
24–31
U (2A/2M/1C)
c.4120C > T
p.Arg1374CysC
28
A1
htz
Missense
A/A/A/
A/O/na/
O/A
22/ 22/23 /
18/11/21/
20/32
10/8/6/
12/4/9/
11/14
40CSA /26CSA /23CSA /
22CSA /11CSA /42CSA /
27CSA /43CSA
32
U
c.4120C > A
p.Arg1374Ser
28
A1
htz
Missense
A
11
9
17CSA
33
U
c.4120C > A
p.Arg1374Ser
28
A1
htz
Missense
O
11
4
10CSA
34
U (2A/2M/1C)
c.4121G > A
p.Arg1374His
28
A1
htz
Missense
A
19
6
38CSA
35–37
U (2A/2M)
c.4241T > G
p.Val1414Gly
28
A1
htz
Missense
AB/A/O
14/42/15
9/15/7
30CSA /53CSA /25CSA
38
U (2A/2B)
c.4373G > A
p.Cys1458Tyr
28
A2
htz
Missense
19
1RCo
27
39
U
c.4943C > TN
p.Pro1648Leu
28
A2
htz
Missense
A
59
55
57
40
U
c.5312–3C > GN
–
31
A3
htz
Splice Site
B
28
20
47
41
U (A/1)
c.6981T > G
p.Cys2327Trp
41
C1
htz
Missense
O
37
32
103CSA
42
U
c.7645T > CN
p.Cys2549Arg
45
C4
htz
Missense
O
9
16
41CSA
Abbreviations: aa, amino acid; C, indicating variants accelerating VWF clearance;
Del, deletion; hmz, homozygous; htz, heterozygous; N, novel variants; Nt, nucleotide.
Notes: The D domains exhibit a consistent architecture, featuring VW domains, C8 folds,
TIL structures, and E modules. Notably, exceptions occur in the D' domain, which lacks
VW/C8, and the D4 domain, which lacks E but includes D4N.
The assessment of VWF binding activity to platelet GPIb (VWF:Ac) predominantly relied
on the VWF:GPIbM assay, which employs recombinant mutated GPIb (without ristocetin).
However, in specific instances, as indicated in the table, it was assessed using VWF:GPIbR,
a method employing recombinant wild-type GPIb in the presence of ristocetin or the
VWF:RCo assay. For some patients, the FVIII coagulant activities (FVIII:C) values
were determined through either the one-stage clotting assay (OSCA) or the chromogenic
substrate assay (CSA). Unmarked FVIII:C values signify that they were assessed using
the one-stage assay based on actin FS.
Exploring the Pathogenic Potential of Novel Missense and Splice Site Variants via
Bioinformatics
Evaluating the Pathogenicity of Novel Missense Variants through In Silico Analysis
In the current type 2 VWD cohort, we identified 45 novel VWF variants, including 27
missense variants, 15 null alleles, 1 silent variant, and 2 regulatory variants. Most
of these novel variants were observed in type 2A VWD. The pathogenicity of the novel
missense variants was evaluated using predictive bioinformatic tools such as SIFT,
PolyPhen-2, MutationTaster, and ConSurf. Of the 27 novel missense variants detected,
22 were consistently predicted to be deleterious or damaging by SIFT, PolyPhen-2,
and MutationTaster. Notably, these variants predominantly occupied conserved residues,
as indicated by ConSurf. In contrast, five missense variants showed discrepancies
between the predictive outcomes of the bioinformatics tools, with one or two tools
suggesting pathogenic effects while another indicated a benign or tolerated outcome
([Table 6.I ]).
Table 6
Pathogenicity assessment of novel missense and splice site variants in type 2 VWD
patients via bioinformatics tools
I. In silico pathogenicity prediction of novel candidate missense variants in type
2 VWD patients by bioinformatics tools
#
Subtypes
Nt change
aa change
Domain
In silico analysis
Existing in databases
SIFT (Score)
PolyPhen-2 (Score)
Mutation Taster (Score)
ConSurf
HGMD/LOVD/Pubmed
gnomAD (Frequency)/ClinVar
1
Type 2A
c.1324C > T
p.Arg442Cys
D1
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.997)
Disease causing (0.810)
8 (e,f)
No
Yes (3.10e-5)/VUS
2
Type 2A
c.1450C > T
p.His484Tyr
D1
Deleterious (0.01)
Benign (0.401)
Disease causing (0.357)
4 (e)
No
Yes (4.96e-6)/No
3
Type 2A
c.1835T > G
p.Val612Gly
D2
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.992)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (b,s)
No
Yes (2.82e-6)/No
4
Type 2A
c.1855C > T
p.Arg619Cys
D2
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.997)
Disease causing (0.897)
4 (e)
No
Yes (5.85e-6)/No
5
Type 2A
c.1915C > T
p.Arg639Cys
D2
Tolerated (0.22)
Possibly damaging (0.659)
Polymorphism (0.212)
2 (b)
No
Yes (1.59e-5)/No
6
Type 2A
c.3296G > A
p.Cys1099Tyr
D3
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.99)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (b,s)
No
No/No
7
Type 2A
c.3314C > A
p.Ala1105Asp
D3
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.995)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (b,s)
No
No/No
8
Type 2A
c.3434G > C
p.Arg1145Pro
D3
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.986)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (e,f)
No
No/No
9
Type 2A
c.3469T > G
p.Cys1157Gly
D3
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.968)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (b,s)
No
No/No
10
Type 2A
c.3610C > T
p.Arg1204Trp
D3
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.972)
Polymorphism (0.308)
2 (e)
No
Yes (2.42e-5)/No
11
Type 2A
c.3839T > C
p.Phe1280Ser
A1
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (1)
Disease causing (0.810)
7 (b)
No
No/No
12
Type 2M
c.3847G > A
p.Asp1283Asn
A1
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.985)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (e,f)
No
No/No
13
Type 2M
c.4037A > C
p.Gln1346Pro
A1
Deleterious (0.04)
Probably damaging (0.999)
Polymorphism (0.089)
1 (e)
No
No/No
14
Type 2A
c.4078G > T
p.Val1360Phe
A1
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.997)
Disease causing (0.536)
7 (b)
No
No/VUS
15
Type 2A
c.4145T > A
p.Leu1382Gln
A1
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (1)
Disease causing (0.462)
6 (b)
No
No/No
16
Type 2A
c.4151T > C
p.Leu1384Pro
A1
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (1)
Disease causing (0.810)
7 (b)
No
No/VUS
17
Type 2A
c.4541T > C
p.Phe1514Ser
A2
Deleterious (0)
Possibly damaging (0.994)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (b,s)
No
No/No
18
Type 2A
c.4589T > G
p.Val1530Gly
A2
Deleterious (0.02)
Probably damaging (0.98)
Disease causing (0.432)
5 (e)
No
No/No
19
Type 2A
c.4718G > T
p.Gly1573Val
A2
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (1)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (e,f)
No
No/No
20
Type 2A
c.4730A > C
p.Asn1577Thr
A2
Deleterious (0)
Benign (0.299)
Disease causing (0.536)
9 (e,f)
No
No/No
21
Type 2A
c.4811T > A
p.Val1604Asp
A2
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.976)
Disease causing (0.810)
9(b,s)
No
No/No
22
Type 2A
c.4880C > G
p.Pro1627Arg
A2
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.999)
Disease causing (0.810)
8 (b)
No
No/No
23
U
c.4943C > T
p.Pro1648Leu
A2
Deleterious (0.01)
Probably damaging (0.999)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (e,f)
No
Yes (8.90e-6)/No
24
Type 2A
c.5092G > T
p.Gly1698Cys
A3
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.999)
Disease causing (0.587)
7 (e)
No
Yes (6.57e-6)/No
25
Type 2A
c.7060T > G
p.Cys2354Gly
C2
Deleterious (0)
Possibly damaging (0.883)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (e,f)
No
Yes (1.59e-6)/No
26
U
c.7645T > C
p.Cys2549Arg
C4
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.963)
Disease causing (0.810)
9 (b,s)
No
No/No
27
Type 2M
c.7694G > A
p.Cys2565Ser
C4
Deleterious (0)
Probably damaging (0.963)
Disease causing (0.519)
9 (b,s)
No
No/No
II. Pathogenicity evaluation for newly identified splice site variants using Illumina
AI splicing prediction tool incorporated in Ensembl Variant Effect Predictor (VEP)
#
Nt change
Phenotype
Illumina SpliceAI
Acceptor loss Δ Score
Acceptor gain Δ Score
Donor loss Δ Score
Donor gain Δ Score
1
c.1110–6_1110–5insC
Type 2A
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2
c.2546 + 1G > A
Type 2A
0.00
0.00
0.83
0.03
3
c.3539–10T > G
Type U
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
4
c.5312–3C > G
Type U
0.63
0.04
0.00
0.00
5
c.6798 + 2T > A
Type 2N
0.00
0.00
0.99
0.36
Abbreviations: aa, amino acid; Nt, nucleotide; VUS, variant of uncertain significance;
VWF, von Willebrand factor.
Notes: I. To predict the potential impact of newly identified variants on protein
function, we utilized several in silico prediction tools. SIFT (Sorting Intolerant
From Tolerant) analyzes interspecific and evolutionary sequence conservation. PolyPhen-2
(Polymorphism Phenotyping-2) assesses structural parameters as differential criteria
in its analyses. MutationTaster 2021 utilizes supervised machine learning analysis,
incorporating computational, mathematical, and biochemical parameters for predictions.
ConSurf employs a multi-alignment pipeline and conservation profile construction to
assess conservation. SIFT categorizes variants as tolerated or deleterious substitutions,
assigning a normalized probability score. Variants with scores <0.05 are predicted
as deleterious, while those with scores ≥0.05 are considered tolerated. PolyPhen-2
generates predictions of probably damaging, possibly damaging, or benign outcomes,
accompanied by a numerical score ranging from 0.0 (benign) to 1.0 (damaging). MutationTaster
prediction scores range from 0 to 1, with higher scores indicating a higher likelihood
of pathogenicity. Prediction categories include “disease_causing_automatic,” “disease
causing,” “polymorphism,” and “polymorphism-automatic.” The score cutoff between “disease
causing” and “polymorphism” is 0.317.
ConSurf provides a conservation score on a scale of 1 to 9, indicating the degree
of conservation of the mutated residues' corresponding amino acids.
ConSurf conversation scale:
The presence of variants was evaluated by cross-referencing disease-specific databases
such as HGMD (Human Mutation Gene Database), LOVD (Leiden Open Variation Database),
and Pubmed (literature), alongside population databases like gnomAD and ClinVar. DNA
variations were considered potential pathogenic candidates if their minor allele frequency
(MAF) was found to be below 1% in the population databases.
II. The Illumina SpliceAl predicted the effect of variants on core splice sites by
providing delta (Δ) scores ranging from 0 to 1. The suggested cutoffs are 0.2 (high
recall), 0.5 (recommended), and 0.8 (high precision).
In Silico Evaluation of Splice Site Variant Pathogenicity
We identified five potential novel splice variants in type 2A (c.1110–6_1110–5insC
and c.2546 + 1G > A), type 2N (c.6798 + 2T > A, coupled with a type 2N-specific variant),
and type U (c.5312–3C > G and c.3539–10T > G). To assess the potential consequences
of these splicing variants, we utilized the Illumina SpliceAI tool integrated into
VEP. Our analysis indicated that variants located in core consensus splice site residues
(c.2546 + 1G > A, c.6798 + 2T > A, and c.5312–3C > G) could impact splicing efficiency.
However, two variants located outside the consensus donor splice sites (+ and −5 nucleotides),
namely, c.1110–6_1110–5insC and c.3539–10T > G, did not exhibit any apparent impact
on splicing efficiency according to the SpliceAI predictive tool ([Table 6.II ]).
In Silico Structural and Functional Consequences of Novel Variants
Novel variants within the D2 domain are predicted to cause significant destabilization,
impairing multimer formation. The p.Arg442Cys variant disrupts electrostatic interactions
and promotes non-native disulfide bond formation, while p.His484Tyr alters critical
hydrogen bonding. The p.Val612Gly variant increases flexibility, destabilizing the
hydrophobic core, and both p.Arg619Cys and p.Arg639Cys interfere with electrostatic
interactions, leading to misfolding and abnormal disulfide bonding ([Fig. 4A ]). In the D3 domain, variants such as p.Cys1099Tyr and p.Cys1157Gly disrupt essential
disulfide bonds, while p.Ala1105Asp weakens hydrophobic interactions. The p.Arg1145Pro
variant increases domain rigidity, and p.Arg1204Trp introduces steric clashes, collectively
destabilizing the domain and impairing multimer formation ([Fig. 4A ]).
Fig. 4 Structural and functional impact of novel VWF variants across key domains analyzed
in silico. The impact of novel von Willebrand factor (VWF) variants on domain structure
and function was analyzed in silico across domains D2, D3, A1, A2, A3, C2, and C4.
Panels A to F depict the structural consequences of these variants. (A ) D2 and D3 domains: Structural impacts were examined using PDB IDs: 7ZWH and 6N29.
(B ) A1 domain: Using PDB IDs: 1AUQ and 1SQ0, the effects on platelet GPIbα binding and
domain stability were analyzed. (C ) A2 domain: PDB: 3GXB was used to analyze A2 novel variants. (D ) A3 domain: The A3 domain novel variants were analyzed using PDB: 4DMU. (E ) C2 domain: Using an AlphaFold model, the p.Cys2354Gly variant was analyzed. (F ) C4 domain: Structural consequences of C4 novel variants were assessed using PDB:
6FWN.
In the A1 domain, mutations at residues Phe1280, Leu1382, Leu1384, and Val1360, while
not directly involved in the GPIbα heterodimeric interface, significantly contribute
to the domain's overall stability. Phe1280 and Leu1382 are critical for maintaining
the hydrophobic core, while Leu1384 further reinforces structural integrity. Although
Val1360 is positioned near the GPIbα interface, it aids in stabilizing the binding
site's conformation through hydrophobic interactions without direct contact. Substitutions
at these residues compromise VWF stability and multimerization by altering structural
conformation. In contrast, the variants p.Asp1283Asn and p.Gln1346Pro directly impact
platelet binding via GPIbα, with Asp1283 forming essential hydrogen bonds and electrostatic
interactions that stabilize the A1–GPIbα interaction. Gln1346 also contributes to
this interface, influencing the specificity and strength of binding ([Fig. 3B ]). Novel variants in the A2 domain, including p.Phe1514Ser, p.Val1530Gly, p.Val1604Asp,
p.Asn1577Thr, p.Pro1627Arg, and p.Pro1648Leu, destabilize the domain, increasing susceptibility
to cleavage at the Tyr1605-Met1606 site. In contrast, p.Gly1573Val alters domain stability
and flexibility without affecting cleavage susceptibility; this substitution introduces
a bulkier side chain that may restrict movement and cause steric clashes, leading
to localized rigidity that impairs domain stability and likely hinders proper VWF
dimer alignment during multimerization ([Fig. 4C ]). The p.Gly1698Cys variant in the A3 domain of VWF substitutes glycine with cysteine,
introducing a larger, sulfur-containing side chain that increases the likelihood of
non-native disulfide bond formation with adjacent cysteines. This alteration further
compromises structural integrity and likely impairs the alignment of VWF dimers necessary
for multimer elongation ([Fig. 3D ]).
The p.Cys2354Gly variant in the C2 domain occurs at an unpaired cysteine. Although
this cysteine is unpaired within the domain, it may participate in interdomain disulfide
bonds. Consequently, the Cys2354Gly substitution could potentially disrupt key interdomain
interactions, impairing VWF dimer formation and exerting a dominant-negative effect
on VWF biosynthesis ([Fig. 4E ]). Lastly, the p.Cys2549Arg and p.Cys2565Ser variants in the VWF C4 domain are predicted
to disrupt the domain's structural integrity and platelet binding efficacy (interaction
with platelet integrin αIIbβ3). Both Cys2549 and Cys2565 participate in critical disulfide
bonding. The substitution of cysteine with arginine at position 2549 disrupts electrostatic
balance, and the serine substitution at 2565 introduces weaker hydrogen bonding instead
of strong disulfide linkages. These alterations disrupt critical disulfide bonds,
destabilizing the domain and reducing platelet integrin (αIIbβ3) binding ([Fig. 3F ]).[60 ]
[61 ]
Discussion
The current study represents one of the largest cohorts of type 2 VWD patients, examining
the mutation spectrum and laboratory phenotype among 196 IPs in Germany, totaling
247 when including family members. Initially, our cohort comprised 417 IPs with both
quantitative and qualitative VWD, including 221 IPs diagnosed with quantitative VWD
(types 1 and 3) and 196 with type 2 VWD. The analysis of the quantitative cohort has
been published elsewhere,[37 ] while this study focuses on the qualitative VWD (type 2) patients.[37 ]
Among the current type 2 VWD cohort, 44% of patients had type 2A (the most common
subtype), followed by 14% with type 2N, 12% with type 2B, 9% with type 2M, and 21%
with unclassified VWD (type U). Within the type 2A group, subtype 2A/IIA was the most
prevalent, accounting for 39%.
The distribution of type 2 VWD subtypes in our cohort follows the pattern of 2A > 2N > 2B > 2M.
Notably, heterozygous carriers of type 2N-specific variants do not meet the diagnostic
criteria for type 2N VWD, as this subtype follows a recessive inheritance pattern.
Some initially diagnosed cases were later confirmed as carriers through genetic analysis.
Similarly, type 2A was the most prevalent subtype in Spanish, US, Czech/ Slovak (referred
to as the heart of Europe), and Chinese cohorts, as well as in our previously reported
cohort from 2012.[38 ]
[68 ]
[69 ]
[70 ]
[71 ]
[72 ] However, in the French and Italian (Milan) cohorts, type 2M was the most prevalent,
followed by type 2A.[73 ]
[74 ] In accordance with our cohort, subtype 2A/IIA emerged as the most common type 2A
subgroup across Milan, France, and Czech/Slovak populations.[64 ]
[73 ]
[74 ]
[75 ]
The updated guidelines recommended a VWF activity/VWF ratio cutoff of <0.7 to confirm
type 2 VWD (2A, 2B, and 2M), a criterion we employed in our study.[26 ] Among type 2A patients, approximately 87% had a VWF activity/VWF ratio of ≤0.6,
with four patients exhibiting a ratio of exactly 0.7. After comprehensive evaluations,
including multimer analysis, VWF collagen binding assays, and genetic analysis, these
patients were classified as type 2A. Similarly, over 90% of type 2B patients showed
a VWF activity/VWF ratio of ≤0.6. Three patients with a ratio of 0.7 were categorized
as type 2B based on reduced VWF HMWMs and the presence of specific variants. In the
type 2M cohort, most patients had a VWF activity/VWF ratio of <0.6; however, six patients
with ratios of ≥0.7 were noted, including index patients with mutations in the A3
domain that affect collagen binding.[33 ] In the present cohort of type 2 VWD, variants in the VWF were identified in 187 of the 196 individuals (95%). Mutation-negative cases were
exclusively found within the type 2A sub-cohort (8 out of 86 individuals) and type
2M (1 out of 17 individuals). Notably, five of the mutation-negative cases within
the type 2A cohort were later confirmed to have acquired VWD. Overall, 222 VWF variants
were detected, comprising 114 distinct variations after eliminating duplicates. In
type 2B and type 2M, all identified variants were missense mutations. Consistent with
previous population-based studies, missense mutations accounted for the majority of
variants in type 2A (78%), type 2N (83%), and subgroup U (90%).[38 ]
[73 ]
[74 ] Null alleles were predominantly identified in type 2A (13 out of 22), followed by
type 2N (5 alleles) and subgroup U (4 alleles). Previous in vitro studies have elucidated
the molecular mechanisms underlying VWF deletions and core splice site variants, which
exhibit a dominant-negative effect, impeding the elongation of large VWF multimers
and contributing to type 2A VWD.[76 ]
[77 ]
[78 ] In type 2N VWD, null alleles were identified alongside type 2N-specific variants
(compound heterozygous), correlating with reduced plasma VWF levels compared with
typical type 2N VWD patients, a finding consistent with reports from other cohorts.[34 ]
[79 ]
Among the 114 distinct variants identified, 45 (39%) were reported for the first time
in the VWD population, representing more than one-third of the total. Most of these
novel variants were predicted to be pathogenic according to bioinformatics analyses.
In silico structural predictions indicate that all these novel VWF variants may disrupt
domain stability, hinder multimerization, and impair critical functional interactions
essential for platelet adhesion. Each population-based study has identified a significant
number of novel VWF variants, highlighting the genetic complexity and heterogeneous
clinical presentation of this condition.[68 ]
[71 ]
[74 ]
[80 ]
The challenge in classifying certain VWD patients as type U underscores the complexity
of VWF structure–function relationships and the limitations of current diagnostic
criteria. Several genetic variants, such as p.Tyr1146Cys, p.Arg1315C, p.Arg1374Cys,
and p.Arg1374His, consistently appear in different VWD types (types 1, 2A, 2M, and
2B), both in the literature and our own cohort, creating ambiguity in phenotype determination.[72 ]
[81 ]
[82 ] We classified individuals with these variants as type U. These discrepancies may
be influenced by multiple factors, including variability in plasma VWF levels (such
as ABO blood type, age, pregnancy, medications, and underlying diseases), as well
as variability in laboratory assays. Additionally, recent structural analyses by Seidizadeh
et al have highlighted how the unique positions of these variants in the A1-A2 domains
could disrupt both GPIb binding and multimerization. This dual impact might explain
why some patients exhibit characteristics overlapping between types 2A and 2M, further
complicating subtype classification.[83 ] In addition, the complexity of genotype–phenotype correlations in VWD is further
illustrated by studies like that of van Kwawegen et al, which reported a strong association
between the p.Arg1306Trp variant and thrombocytopenia in type 2B VWD.[84 ] Such genotype–phenotype correlations are valuable in understanding the clinical
implications of specific variants and underscore the need for more comprehensive studies
that integrate both genetic and clinical data. Additionally, in our cohort, some patients
had inconclusive genotypes. This group included mutation-negative individuals and
those with variants that did not fully explain their phenotypes, such as type 2A patients
with VWF variants typically associated with quantitative deficiencies.
In summary, our study reveals novel molecular mechanisms and expands the spectrum
of VWF variants, including newly identified mutations. By integrating phenotypic and
genotypic data, we provide deeper insights into phenotype–genotype correlations in
VWD. These findings enhance our understanding of the disease, improve diagnostic accuracy,
and support personalized treatment. Additionally, the significant genetic heterogeneity
and complex phenotypic variations in type 2 VWD underscore the challenges in precise
classification, particularly where co-inherited mutations complicate diagnosis.
What is known about this topic?
Type 2 von Willebrand disease (VWD) arises from qualitative defects in von Willebrand
factor (VWF) that impair its hemostatic functions.
It is categorized into subtypes 2A, 2B, 2M, and 2N, each with distinct molecular mechanisms
and clinical phenotypes.
Genetic heterogeneity in type 2 VWD complicates diagnosis and classification.
What does this paper add?
This study identifies 114 unique VWF variants, including 45 novel variants, significantly
expanding the spectrum of disease-associated mutations.
Findings highlight the challenges of genetic heterogeneity in type 2 VWD, emphasizing
the need for refined diagnostic criteria.
Comprehensive genotype–phenotype correlations provide valuable insights for personalized
treatment strategies in type 2 VWD.