PDF herunterladen
Am J Perinatol 2007; 24(7): 387-400
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-982074
Copyright © 2007 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Exposure to Mercury during the First Six Months via Human Milk and Vaccines: Modifying Risk Factors

José G. Dórea1
  • 1Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

Publikationsdatum:
12. Juni 2007 (online)

    Lizenzen und Reprints

ABSTRACT

Breastfeeding is the best natural protection infants have against morbidity and mortality, and the development of safe and effective vaccines has made it possible to immunize children against infectious disease. Both of these mechanisms for ensuring good health in children may be compromised by contact with mercury (Hg). Maternal exposure to environmental Hg during pregnancy can predispose nursing children to neurodevelopmental disorders. Despite the World Health Organization assurance that thimerosal-preserved vaccines are safe to use in infants, the United States, the European Union, and dozens of other countries have eliminated thimerosal as a vaccine preservative and stopped the immunization of children with such vaccines. Because of the increase in environmental pollution and the need to produce cheap and safe vaccines, there is a need to address the uncertainty of vaccine-ethylmercury risk of toxicity and Hg exposure during breastfeeding.

KEYWORDS

Thimerosal - ethylmercury - methylmercury - breastfeeding - brain development - autism

REFERENCES

  • 1 Cohen J T, Bellinger D C, Shaywitz B A. A quantitative analysis of prenatal methyl mercury exposure and cognitive development.  Am J Prev Med. 2005;  29 353-365
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Amanna I, Slifka M K. Public fear of vaccination: separating fact from fiction.  Viral Immunol. 2005;  18 307-315
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 James S J, Slikker III W, Melnyk S, New E, Pogribna M, Jernigan S. Thimerosal neurotoxicity is associated with glutathione depletion: protection with glutathione precursors.  Neurotoxicology. 2005;  26 1-8
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Burbacher T M, Shen D D, Liberato N, Grant K S, Cernichiari E, Clarkson T. Comparison of blood and brain mercury levels in infant monkeys exposed to methylmercury or vaccines containing thimerosal.  Environ Health Perspect. 2005;  113 1015-1021
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Mata L, Sanchez L, Calvo M. Interaction of mercury with human and bovine milk proteins.  Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 1997;  61 1641-1645
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Dorea J G, Horner M R, Campanate M L. Longitudinal study of major milk constituents from two socioeconomic groups of mothers in Brazil.  Nutr Rep Int. 1984;  29 699-710
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Dorea J G. Mercury and lead during breast-feeding.  Br J Nutr. 2004;  92 21-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Dorea J G, Donangelo C M. Early (in uterus and infant) exposure to mercury and lead.  Clin Nutr. 2006;  25 369-376
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Sundberg J, Jonsson S, Karlsson M O, Hallen I P, Oskarsson A. Kinetics of methylmercury and inorganic mercury in lactating and nonlactating mice.  Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1998;  151 319-329
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Havarinasab S, Haggqvist B, Bjorn E, Pollard K M, Hultman P. Immunosuppressive and autoimmune effects of thimerosal in mice.  Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005;  204 109-121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Havarinasab S, Hultman P. Organic mercury compounds and autoimmunity.  Autoimmun Rev. 2005;  4 270-275
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Charleston J S, Body R L, Bolender R P, Mottet N K, Vahter M E, Burbacher T M. Changes in the number of astrocytes and microglia in the thalamus of the monkey Macaca fascicularis following long-term subclinical methylmercury exposure.  Neurotoxicology. 1996;  17 127-138
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Charleston J S, Body R L, Mottet N K, Vahter M E, Burbacher T M. Autometallographic determination of inorganic mercury distribution in the cortex of the calcarine sulcus of the monkey Macaca fascicularis following long-term subclinical exposure to methylmercury and mercuric chloride.  Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1995;  132 325-333
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Waly M, Olteanu H, Banerjee R et al.. Activation of methionine synthase by insulin-like growth factor-1 and dopamine: a target for neurodevelopmental toxins and thimerosal.  Mol Psychiatry. 2004;  9 358-370
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Parran D K, Barker A, Ehrich M. Effects of thimerosal on NGF signal transduction and cell death in neuroblastoma cells.  Toxicol Sci. 2005;  86 132-140
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Magos L. Neurotoxic character of thimerosal and the allometric extrapolation of adult clearance half-time to infants.  J Appl Toxicol. 2003;  23 263-269
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Pichichero M E, Cernichiari E, Lopreiato J, Treanor J. Mercury concentrations and metabolism in infants receiving vaccines containing thiomersal: a descriptive study.  Lancet. 2002;  360 1737-1741
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Amin-Zaki L, Majeed M A, Greenwood M R, Elhassani S B, Clarkson T W, Doherty R A. Methylmercury poisoning in the Iraqi suckling infant: a longitudinal study over five years.  J Appl Toxicol. 1981;  1 210-214
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Halsey N A, Goldman L R. Mercury in infants given vaccines containing thiomersal.  Lancet. 2003;  361 698-699
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Marques R C, Dórea J G, Bastos W R, Rebelo M F, Malm O. Hair mercury in breast-fed infants exposed to thimerosal-preserved vaccines.  Eur J Pediatr. 2007;  , In press. 10.1007/s00431-006-0362-2
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Fang S C, Fallin E. The binding of various mercurial compounds to serum proteins.  Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1976;  15 110-117
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Grandjean P, Jorgensen P J, Weihe P. Human milk as a source of methylmercury exposure in infants.  Environ Health Perspect. 1994;  102 74-77
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Hviid A, Stellfeld M, Wohlfahrt J, Melbye M. Association between thimerosal-containing vaccine and autism.  JAMA. 2003;  290 1763-1766
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 NIAID- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Supported Studies on Mercury .Thimerosal, and vaccine safety. 2005 Available at: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/thimerosalqa.htm Accessed April 11, 2006.
    Google Scholar
  • 25 Bigham M, Copes R. Thiomersal in vaccines: balancing the risk of adverse effects with the risk of vaccine-preventable disease.  Drug Saf. 2005;  28 89-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Pichichero M E, Treanor J. Mercury in infants given vaccines containing thiomersal.  Lancet. 2003;  9358 699
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Dorea J G. Fish meal in animal feed and human exposure to persistent bioaccumulative and toxic substances.  J Food Protec. 2006;  69 2777-2785
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Harry G J, Harris M W, Burka L T. Mercury concentrations in brain and kidney following ethylmercury, methylmercury and thimerosal administration to neonatal mice.  Toxicol Lett. 2004;  154 183-189
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Fang S C, Fallin E. Uptake, distribution, and metabolism of inhaled ethylmercuric chloride in the rat.  Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1973;  1 347-361
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Goncharuk G A. Experimental study of the effect of organomercury group pesticides on the generative function and progeny.  Gig Sanit. 1971;  36 87-91
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Grandjean P, Weihe P, White R F. Milestone development in infants exposed to methylmercury from human milk.  Neurotoxicology. 1995;  16 27-33
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Clarkson T W, Strain J J. Methyl mercury: loaves versus fishes.  Seychelles Med Dent J. 2004;  7 61-66
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Aschner M, Syversen T, Souza D O, Rocha J B. Metallothioneins: mercury species-specific induction and their potential role in attenuating neurotoxicity.  Exp Biol Med. 2006;  231 1468-1473
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Custodio H M, Broberg K, Wennberg M et al.. Polymorphisms in glutathione-related genes affect methylmercury retention.  Arch Environ Health. 2004;  59 588-595
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Custodio H M, Harari R, Gerhardsson L, Skerfving S, Broberg K. Genetic influences on the retention of inorganic mercury.  Arch Environ Health. 2005;  60 17-23
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Milsap R L, Jusko W J. Pharmacokinetics in the infant.  Environ Health Perspect. 1994;  102(Suppl 11) 107-110
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Stevenson D K, Wong R J, Vreman H J, McDonagh A F, Maisels M J, Lightner D A. NICHD Conference on Kernicterus: Research on Prevention of Bilirubin-Induced Brain Injury and Kernicterus: Bench-to-Bedside-Diagnostic Methods and Prevention and Treatment Strategies.  J Perinatol. 2004;  24 521-525
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Lie S O, Bratlid D. The protective effect of albumin on bilirubin toxicity on human fibroblasts.  Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1970;  26 37-41
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Hosono S, Ohno T, Kimoto H et al.. Follow-up study of auditory brainstem responses in infants with high unbound bilirubin levels treated with albumin infusion therapy.  Pediatr Int. 2002;  44 488-492
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Watanabe K, Izumi T. Separation of water-nondialyzable thimerosal in serum by cysteine equilibrium dialysis.  Jpn J Med Sci Biol. 1973;  26 179-185
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Stajich G V, Lopez G P, Harry S W, Sexson W R. Iatrogenic exposure to mercury after hepatitis B vaccination in preterm infants.  J Pediatr. 2000;  136 679-681
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Klein D, Scholz P, Drasch G A, Muller-Hocker J, Summer K H. Metallothionein, copper and zinc in fetal and neonatal human liver: changes during development.  Toxicol Lett. 1991;  56 61-67
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Dorea J G, Brito M, Araujo M O. Concentration of copper and zinc in liver of fetuses and infants.  J Am Coll Nutr. 1987;  6 491-495
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Perez-Escamilla R, Chapman D. Can women remember when their milk came in?.  Adv Exp Med Biol. 2001;  501 576-572
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Hornig M, Chian D, Lipkin W I. Neurotoxic effects of postnatal thimerosal are mouse strain dependent.  Mol Psychiatry. 2004;  9 833-845
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Adinolfi M. The development of the human blood-CSF-brain barrier.  Dev Med Child Neurol. 1985;  27 532-537
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Marques R C, Dórea J G, Manzatto A G, Bastos W R, Bernardi J VB, Malm O. Time of perinatal immunization, thimerosal exposure and neurodevelopment at six months in breastfed infants.  Acta Paediatr. 2007;  11 287-291
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Durston S, Hulshoff Pol H E, Casey B J, Giedd J N, Buitelaar J K, van Engeland H. Anatomical MRI of the developing human brain: what have we learned?.  J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;  40 1012-1020
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Nagy E, Loveland K A, Orvos H, Molnar P. Gender-related physiologic differences in human neonates and the greater vulnerability of males to developmental brain disorders.  J Gend Specif Med. 2001;  4 41-49
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Minet J C, Bisse E, Aebischer C P, Beil A, Wieland H, Lutschg J. Assessment of vitamin B-12, folate, and vitamin B-6 status and relation to sulfur amino acid metabolism in neonates.  Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;  72 751-757
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Jorgensen M H, Ott P, Juul A, Skakkebaek N E, Michaelsen K F. Does breast feeding influence liver biochemistry?.  J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;  37 559-565
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Lucas A, Morley R, Cole T J, Lister G, Leeson-Payne C. Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm.  Lancet. 1992;  339 261-264
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Marszalek J R, Lodish H F. Docosahexaenoic acid, fatty acid-interacting proteins, and neuronal function: breastmilk and fish are good for you.  Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2005;  21 633-657
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Innis S M, Gilley J, Werker J. Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants?.  J Pediatr. 2001;  139 532-538
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Hart S L, Boylan L M, Carroll S R et al.. Brief report: newborn behavior differs with decosahexaenoic acid levels in breast milk.  J Pediatr Psychol. 2006;  31 221-226
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Byard R W, Makrides M, Need M, Neumann M A, Gibson R A. Sudden infant death syndrome: effect of breast and formula feeding on frontal cortex and brainstem lipid composition.  J Paediatr Child Health. 1995;  31 14-16
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Farquharson J, Jamieson E C, Abbasi K A, Patrick W J, Logan R W, Cockburn F. Effect of diet on the fatty acid composition of the major phospholipids of infant cerebral cortex.  Arch Dis Child. 1995;  72 198-203
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Holmes H C, Snodgrass G J, Iles R A. Changes in the choline content of human breast milk in the first 3 weeks after birth.  Eur J Pediatr. 2000;  159 198-204
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Dhillon S K, Davies W E, Hopkins P C, Rose S J. Effects of dietary taurine on auditory function in full-term infants.  Adv Exp Med Biol. 1998;  442 507-514
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Wharton B A, Morley R, Isaacs E B, Cole T J, Lucas A. Low plasma taurine and later neurodevelopment.  Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004;  89 497-498
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Gazzolo D, Bruschettini M, Lituania M, Serra G, Santini P, Michetti F. Levels of S100B protein are higher in mature human milk than in colostrum and milk-formulae milks.  Clin Nutr. 2004;  23 23-26
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Tram T H, Brand Miller J C, McNeil Y, McVeagh P. Sialic acid is found in especially high concentrations in brain gangliosides.  Arch Dis Child. 1997;  77 315-318
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Wang B, McVeagh P, Petocz P, Brand-Miller J. Brain ganglioside and glycoprotein sialic acid in breastfed compared with formula-fed infants.  Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;  78 1024-1029
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Heine W E. The significance of tryptophan in infant nutrition.  Adv Exp Med Biol. 1999;  467 705-710
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Walker C D, Deschamps S, Proulx K et al.. Mother to infant or infant to mother? Reciprocal regulation of responsiveness to stress in rodents and the implications for humans.  J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2004;  29 364-382
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Chen A, Rogan W J. Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States.  Pediatrics. 2004;  113 435-439
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Edmond K M, Zandoh C, Quigley M A, Amenga-Etego S, Owusu-Agyei S, Kirkwood B R. Delayed breastfeeding initiation increases risk of neonatal mortality.  Pediatrics. 2006;  117 380-386
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 al-Ali F M, Hossain M M, Pugh R N. The associations between feeding modes and diarrhoea among urban children in a newly developed country.  Public Health. 1997;  111 239-243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Lorntz B, Soares A M, Moore S R et al.. Early childhood diarrhea predicts impaired school performance.  Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;  25 513-520
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Palmer R F, Blanchard S, Stein Z, Mandell D, Miller C. Environmental mercury release, special education rates, and autism disorder: an ecological study of Texas.  Health Place. 2006;  12 203-209
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Trasande L, Landrigan P J, Schechter C. Public health and economic consequences of methyl mercury toxicity to the developing brain.  Environ Health Perspect. 2005;  113 590-596
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Oken E, Wright R O, Kleinman K P et al.. Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. Cohort.  Environ Health Perspect. 2005;  113 1376-1380
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Cockerill J, Uthaya S, Dore C J, Modi N. Accelerated postnatal head growth follows preterm birth.  Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2006;  91 F184-F187
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Feldman R, Eidelman A I. Direct and indirect effects of breast milk on the neurobehavioral and cognitive development of premature infants.  Dev Psychobiol. 2003;  43 109-119
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Amin S B, Merle K S, Orlando M S, Dalzell L E, Guillet R. Brainstem maturation in preterm infants as a function of enteral feeding type.  Pediatrics. 2000;  106 318-322
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Morley R, Fewtrell M S, Abbott R A, Stephenson T, MacFadyen U, Lucas A. Neurodevelopment in children born small for gestational age: a randomized trial of nutrient-enriched versus standard formula and comparison with a reference breastfed group.  Pediatrics. 2004;  113 515-521
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Khedr E M, Farghaly W M, Amry Sel-D, Osman A A. Neural maturation of breastfed and formula-fed infants.  Acta Paediatr. 2004;  93 734-738
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Unay B, Sarici S U, Ulas U H, Akin R, Alpay F, Gokcay E. Nutritional effects on auditory brainstem maturation in healthy term infants.  Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004;  89 F177-F179
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Vreugdenhil H J, Van Zanten G A, Brocaar M P, Mulder P G, Weisglas-Kuperus N. Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and breastfeeding: opposing effects on auditory P300 latencies in 9-year-old Dutch children.  Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;  46 398-405
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Lehtonen J, Kononen M, Purhonen M, Partanen J, Saarikoski S, Launiala K. The effect of nursing on the brain activity of the newborn.  J Pediatr. 1998;  132 646-651
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Radzyminski S. Neurobehavioral functioning and breastfeeding behavior in the newborn.  J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2005;  34 335-341
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Hart S, Boylan L M, Carroll S, Musick Y A, Lampe R M. Brief report: breast-fed one-week-olds demonstrate superior neurobehavioral organization.  J Pediatr Psychol. 2003;  28 529-534
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Lanting C I, Fidler V, Huisman M, Touwen B C, Boersma E R. Neurological differences between 9-year-old children fed breast-milk or formula-milk as babies.  Lancet. 1994;  344 1319-1322
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Vestergaard M, Obel C, Henriksen T B, Sorensen H T, Skajaa E, Ostergaard J. Duration of breastfeeding and developmental milestones during the latter half of infancy.  Acta Paediatr. 1999;  88 1327-1332
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Kadziela-Olech H, Piotrowska-Jastrzebska J. The duration of breastfeeding and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.  Rocz Akad Med Bialymst. 2005;  50 302-306
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Batstra L, Hadders-Algra M, Neeleman J. Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood: prospective evidence from a Dutch birth cohort.  Early Hum Dev. 2003;  75 21-33
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Amore M, Balista C, McCreadie R G et al.. Can breast-feeding protect against schizophrenia? Case-control study.  Biol Neonate. 2003;  83 97-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Sorensen H J, Mortensen E L, Reinisch J M, Mednick S A. Breastfeeding and risk of schizophrenia in the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort.  Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2005;  112 26-29
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Lawlor D A, Najman J M, Batty G D, O'Callaghan M J, Williams G M, Bor W. Early life predictors of childhood intelligence: findings from the Mater-University study of pregnancy and its outcomes.  Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2006;  20 148-162
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Anderson J W, Johnstone B M, Remley D T. Breast-feeding and cognitive development: a meta-analysis.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;  70 525-535
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Oddy W H, Kendall G E, Blair E et al.. Breastfeeding and cognitive development in childhood: a prospective birth cohort study.  Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2003;  17 81-90
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Agostoni C, Trojan S, Bellu R, Riva E, Giovannini M. Neurodevelopmental quotient of healthy term infants at 4 months and feeding practice: the role of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.  Pediatr Res. 1995;  38 262-266
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Daniels M C, Adair L S. Breast-feeding influences cognitive development in Filipino children.  J Nutr. 2005;  135 2589-2595
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Victora C G, Barros F C, Horta B L, Lima R C. Breastfeeding and school achievement in Brazilian adolescents.  Acta Paediatr. 2005;  94 1656-1660
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Mortensen E L, Michaelsen K F, Sanders S A, Reinisch J M. The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence.  JAMA. 2002;  287 2365-2371
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Mortensen E L, Michaelsen K F, Sanders S A, Reinisch J M. Breast feeding and intelligence.  Ugeskr Laeger. 2003;  165 1361-1366
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Schultz S T, Klonoff-Cohen H S, Wingard D L et al.. Breastfeeding, infant formula supplementation, and autistic disorder: the results of a parent survey.  Int Breastfeed J. 2006;  1 16
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Tanoue Y, Oda S. Weaning time of children with infantile autism.  J Autism Dev Disord. 1989;  19 425-434
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Parker S K, Schwartz B, Todd J, Pickering L K. Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autistic spectrum disorder: a critical review of published original data.  Pediatrics. 2004;  114 793-804
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Mutter J, Naumann J, Schneider R, Walach H, Haley B. Mercury and autism: accelerating evidence?.  Neuroendocrinol Lett. 2005;  26 439-446
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Verstraeten T, Davis R L, DeStefano F Vaccine Safety Datalink Team et al. Safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: a two-phased study of computerized health maintenance organization databases.  Pediatrics. 2003;  112 1039-1048
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Andrews N, Miller E, Grant A, Stowe J, Osborne V, Taylor B. Thimerosal exposure in infants and developmental disorders: a retrospective cohort study in the United Kingdom does not support a causal association.  Pediatrics. 2004;  114 584-591
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Heron J, Golding J. ALSPAC Study Team . Thimerosal exposure in infants and developmental disorders: a prospective cohort study in the United Kingdom does not support a causal association.  Pediatrics. 2004;  114 577-583
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Geier D, Geier M R. Neurodevelopmental disorders following thimerosal-containing childhood immunizations: a follow-up analysis.  Int J Toxicol. 2004;  23 369-376
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Geier D A, Geier M R. An evaluation of the effects of thimerosal on neurodevelopmental disorders reported following DTP and Hib vaccines in comparison to DTPH vaccine in the United States.  J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2006;  69 1481-1495
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Geier D A, Geier M R. An assessment of downward trends in neurodevelopmental disorders in the United States following removal of thimerosal from childhood vaccines.  Med Sci Monit. 2006;  12 CR231-CR239
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Honda H, Shimizu Y, Rutter M. No effect of MMR withdrawal on the incidence of autism: a total population study.  J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005;  46 572-579
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Fombonne E, Zakarian R, Bennett A, Meng L, McLean-Heywood D. Pervasive developmental disorders in Montreal, Quebec, Canada: prevalence and links with immunizations.  Pediatrics. 2006;  118 e139-e150
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Geier D A, Geier M R. A meta-analysis epidemiological assessment of neurodevelopmental disorders following vaccines administered from 1994 through 2000 in the United States.  Neuroendocrinol Lett. 2006;  27 401-413
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Jensen T K, Grandjean P, Jorgensen E B, White R F, Debes F, Weihe P. Effects of breast feeding on neuropsychological development in a community with methylmercury exposure from seafood.  J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2005;  15 423-430
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Gomaa A, Hu H, Bellinger D et al.. Maternal bone lead as an independent risk factor for fetal neurotoxicity: a prospective study.  Pediatrics. 2002;  110 110-118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Ribas-Fito N, Cardo E, Sala M et al.. Breastfeeding, exposure to organochlorine compounds, and neurodevelopment in infants.  Pediatrics. 2003;  111 e580-e585
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Eskenazi B, Marks A R, Bradman A et al.. In utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and neurodevelopment among young Mexican American children.  Pediatrics. 2006;  118 233-241
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Dorea J G. Maternal smoking and infant feeding: breastfeeding is better and safer.  Matern Child Health J. 2007;  , In press. 10.1007/s10995-006-0172-1
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Abdel-Latif M E, Pinner J, Clews S, Cooke F, Lui K, Oei J. Effects of breast milk on the severity and outcome of neonatal abstinence syndrome among infants of drug-dependent mothers.  Pediatrics. 2006;  117 e1163-e1169
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Schwartz J. Mercury from fish does not reduce children's IQs.  Environ Health Perspect. 2006;  114 A399-A401
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Clarkson T W, Strain J J. Nutritional factors may modify the toxic action of methyl mercury in fish-eating populations.  J Nutr. 2003;  133(5, Suppl 1) 1539S-1543S
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Govinden P, Henderson J, Rizvi Z, Seth V, Shamlaye H. Maternal and child health in Seychelles.  Seychelles Med Dent J. 2004;  7 20-27
    PubMedGoogle Scholar

José G DóreaM.D. 

C.P. 04322, Universidade de Brasilia

70919-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil

      >