Int J Sports Med 2006; 27(12): 1013-1022
DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-923902
Behavioral Sciences

© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Cardiorespiratory Responses of Hi Fit and Low Fit Subjects to Mental Challenge during Exercise

E. O. Acevedo1 , H. E. Webb1 , M. L. Weldy1 , E. C. Fabianke1 , G. R. Orndorff1 , M. A. Starks1
  • 1Applied Physiology Lab, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
Further Information

Publication History

Accepted after revision: December 31, 2005

Publication Date:
11 April 2006 (online)

Abstract

The influence of psychological states on physiological responses during exercise is of considerable importance to individuals for which the efficiency of energy production is critical to occupational performance. Numerous studies have shown that aerobic fitness is associated with enhanced cardiovascular efficiency at rest and that responses to mental stress demonstrate evidence of increased sensitivity (relative increase in HR response) and enhanced efficiency (a decrease in absolute HR). However, the effect of aerobic fitness and its impact on cardiorespiratory (CR) responses to psychological stress during exercise has not been investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was three-fold; (1) to examine during exercise, anxiety, effort sense, and CR responses to a mental challenge, (2) to examine anxiety and heart rate (HR) responses from rest to exercise with mental challenge between below average fitness (Low Fit) and well-above average fitness (Hi Fit) individuals (exercising at similar relative intensities), and (3) to examine anxiety, effort sense, and CR responses of Low Fit and Hi Fit individuals to a mental challenge during exercise at a similar relative intensity. Twelve Low Fit and eleven Hi Fit subjects participated in two, 32-minute cycle ergometer rides at 65 % of V·O2max. In the mental challenge condition (MCC), subjects rode while participating in mentally challenging tasks (Stroop Color-Word task and mental arithmetic) from min 6 to min 14 of the protocol. In the no mental challenge condition (NMCC), subjects exercised at the same intensity and duration without a stressor. Subjects were counter-balanced between fitness levels and condition. HR, V·E, V·E/V·O2, RR, V·O2, RER, effort sense (RPE), and state anxiety (SAI) were assessed at 5, 14, 24, and 30 min. SAI was also assessed at - 5 min before exercise and after 15 min of recovery. In addition, the NASA task load index (NTLX) was used to assess perceived overall workload. SAI increased significantly at 14 min in the MCC. NTLX scores indicated that the MCC was perceived as a greater overall workload. Furthermore, HR, V·E, V·E/V·O2, and RR were significantly elevated during the mental challenge condition at 14 min. The Hi Fit subjects tended to respond to the dual stress of exercise and mental challenge with a relative increase in HR, while absolute HR was similar in both groups. An examination of fitness group differences revealed that SAI and NTLX were similar for Low Fit and Hi Fit subjects when exercising in the MCC, although, Hi Fit subjects demonstrated lower HR responses from 6 min to 14 min. V·E, V·E/V·O2, and RR were similar for Low Fit and Hi Fit subjects. These results suggest that psychological stress during physical activity can exacerbate cardiorespiratory responses and suggests that factors that impact CR adjustment to mental challenge from resting baseline may differ from the factors that impact CR adjustment to mental challenge during exercise. Finally, fitness level attenuates HR and may attenuate additional cardiorespiratory responses while participating in a dual stress condition, of exercise and mental challenge.

References

  • 1 Acevedo E O, Dzewaltowski D A, Kubitz K A, Kraemer R R. Effects of proposed challenge on effort sense and cardiorespiratory responses during exercise.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;  31 1460-1465
  • 2 American College of Sports Medicine .ACSM Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. Philadelphia, USA; Lippincott, Williams & Willkins 2000: 300-312
  • 3 Blumenthal J A, Fredrikson M, Kuhn C M, Ulmer R L, Walsh-Riddle M, Applebaum M. Aerobic exercise reduces levels of cardiovascular and sympathoadrenal responses to mental stress in subjects without prior evidence of myocardial ischemia.  Am J Cardiol. 1990;  65 93-98
  • 4 Borg G. Simple ratings method for estimation of perceived exertion. Borg G Physical Work and Effort. New York, USA; Pergammon Press 1975: 39-46
  • 5 Bornstein S R, Rutkowski H. The adrenal hormone metabolism in the immune/inflammatory reaction.  Endocr Res. 2002;  28 719-728
  • 6 Boutcher S H, Meyer B J, Craig G A, Astheimer L. Resting autonomic function in aerobically trained and untrained postmenopausal women.  J Aging Phys Activity. 1998;  6 310-316
  • 7 Boutcher S H, Nugent F W. Cardiac response of trained and untrained males to a repeated psychological stressor.  Behav Med. 1993;  19 21-27
  • 8 Boutcher S H, Nugent F W, McLaren P F, Weltman A L. Heart period variability of trained and untrained men at rest and during mental challenge.  Psychophysiology. 1998;  35 16-22
  • 9 Boutcher S H, Nugent F W, Weltman A L. Heart rate response to psychological stressors of individuals possessing resting bradycardia.  Behav Med. 1995;  21 40-46
  • 10 Boutcher S H, Nurhayati Y, Mclaren P F. Cardiovascular responses of trained and untrained old men to mental challenge.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;  33 659-664
  • 11 Cacioppo J T, Berntson G C, Malarkey W B, Kiecolt-Glaser J K, Sheridan J F, Poehlmann K M, Ernst J M, Hawkley L C, Glaser R. Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune responses to psychological stress: The reactivity hypothesis.  Ann NY Acad of Sci. 2000;  804 664-673
  • 12 Crews D J. Psychological state and running economy.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;  24 475-482
  • 13 Crews D J, Landers D M. A meta-analytic review of aerobic fitness and reactivity to psychosocial stressors.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987;  19 S114-S120
  • 14 de Gues E J, van Doornen L J, de Visser D C, Orlebeke J F. Existing and training induced differences in aerobic fitness: Their relationship to physiological response pattern during different types of stress.  Psychophysiology. 1990;  27 457-478
  • 15 de Gues E J, van Doornen L J, Orlebeke J F. Regular exercise and aerobic fitness in relation to psychological make-up and physiological stress reactivity.  Psychosom Med. 1993;  55 347-363
  • 16 Delistraty D A, Greene W A, Carlberg K A, Raver K K. Cardiovascular reactivity in Type A and B males to mental arithmetic and aerobic exercise at an equivalent oxygen uptake.  Psychophysiology. 1992;  29 264-271
  • 17 De Meersman R E. Heart rate variability and aerobic fitness.  Am Heart J. 1993;  125 726-731
  • 18 Devito A J, Kubis J F. Alternate forms of the state-trait anxiety inventory.  Educa Psych Meas. 1983;  43 729-734
  • 19 Dienstbier R A. Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health.  Psych Rev. 1989;  96 84-100
  • 20 Franks P W, Boutcher S H. Cardiovascular responses of trained preadolescent boys to mental challenge.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;  35 1429-1435
  • 21 Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Mascetti G G, Gardini S, Zambelli U, Timpano M, Raggi M A, Brambilla F. Neuroendocrine responses to experimentally-induced psychological stress in healthy humans.  Psychoneuroendocrinol. 2001;  26 91-107
  • 22 Hart S G, Staveland L E. Development of a multi-dimensional workload rating scale: Results of empirical and theoretical research. Hancock PA, Meshkati N Human Mental Workload. Amsterdam; Elsevier 1998: 139-183
  • 23 Hatfield B D, Landers D M. Psychophysiology in exercise and sport research: An overview.  Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1987;  15 351-387
  • 24 Hatfield B D, Spalding T W, Mahon A D, Slater B A, Brody E B, Vaccaro P. The effect of psychological strategies upon cardiorespiratory and muscular activity during treadmill running.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;  24 218-225
  • 25 Morgan W P. Psychogenic factors and exercise metabolism: A review.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;  17 309-316
  • 26 Kenney W L. Parasympathetic control of resting heart rate: relationship to aerobic power.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;  17 451-455
  • 27 Obrist P A, Gaebelein C J, Teller E S, Langer A W, Grignolo A, Light K C, McCubbin J A. The relationship among heart rate, dP/dt, and blood pressure in humans as a function of the type of stress.  Psychophysiology. 1978;  15 102-115
  • 28 Roth D L, Bachtler S D, Fillingim R B. Acute emotional and cardiovascular effects of stressful mental work during aerobic exercise.  Psychophysiology. 1990;  27 694-701
  • 29 Rousselle J G, Blascovich J, Kelsey R M. Cardiorespiratory responses under combined psychological and exercise stress.  Int J Psychophysiol. 1995;  20 49-58
  • 30 Schwartz G E, Weinberger D A, Singer J A. Cardiovascular differentiation of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear following imagery and exercise.  Psychosom Med. 1981;  43 343-364
  • 31 Sothmann M S, Buchworth J, Claytor R P, Cox R H, White-Welkley J E, Dishman R K. Exercise training and the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis.  Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1996;  24 267-287
  • 32 Sothmann M S, Kastello G K. Simulated weightlessness to induce chronic hypoactivity of brain norepinephrine for exercise and stress studies.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;  29 39-44
  • 33 Sothmann M S, Saupe K, Jasenof D, Blaney J. Heart Rate responses of firefighters to actual emergencies. Implications for cardiorespiratory fitness.  J Occup Med. 1992;  34 797-800
  • 34 Spalding T W, Jeffers L S, Porges S W, Hatfield B D. Vagal and cardiac reactivity to psychological stressors in trained and untrained men.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;  32 581-591
  • 35 Spalding T W, Lyon L A, Steel D H, Hatfield B D. Aerobic exercise training and cardiovascular reactivity to psychological stress in sedentary young normotensive men and women.  Psychophysiology. 2004;  41 552-562
  • 36 Spielberger C D, Gorsuch R L, Luschene R, Vagg P R, Jacobs G A. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Palo Alto, CA; Consulting Psychologists Press 1983
  • 37 Stein P K, Boutcher S H. The effect of participation in and exercise training program on cardiovascular reactivity in sedentary middle-aged males.  Int J Psychophysiology. 1992;  13 215-223
  • 38 Stroop J P. Studies in interference in serial verbal reactions.  J Exp Psych. 1935;  18 643-662
  • 39 Szabo A, Brown T G, Gauvin L, Seraganian P. Aerobic fitness does not influence directly heart rate reactivity to mental stress.  Acta Physiologica Hungarica. 1993;  81 229-237
  • 40 Szabo A, Peronnet F, Frenkl R, Farkas A, Petrekanits M, Meszaros L, Hetenyi A, Szabo T. Blood pressure and heart rate reactivity to mental strain in adolescent judo athletes.  Physiol Behav. 1994;  56 219-224
  • 41 Szabo A, Peronnet F, Gauvin L, Furedy J J. Mental challenge elicits “additional” increases in heart rate during low and moderate intensity cycling.  Int J Psychophys. 1994;  17 197-204
  • 42 Turner J R, Carroll D. Heart rate and oxygen consumption during mental arithmetic, a video game, and graded exercise: further evidence of metabollically-exaggerated cardiac adjustments?.  Psychophysiology. 1985;  22 261-267
  • 43 Turner J R, Carroll D, Hanson J, Sims J. A comparison of additional heart rates during active psychological challenge calculated from upper body and lower body dynamic exercise.  Psychophysiology. 1988;  25 209-216
  • 44 van Doornen L J, de Gues E J. Aerobic fitness and the cardiovascular response to stress.  Psychophysiology. 1989;  26 17-28
  • 45 Wilder J. Stimulus and Response: The Law of Initial Value. Bristol, UK; Wright 1967

Ph.D. Edmund O. Acevedo

HESRM, The University of Mississippi

P. O. Box 1848

University, MS 38655

USA

Phone: + 1 6629155563

Fax: + 1 66 29 15 55 25

Email: eacevedo@olemiss.edu

    >