Imaging Recommendations for Diagnosis, Staging, and Management of Lung Cancer

Abstract

Globally and in India, lung cancer is one of the leading malignancies in terms of incidence and mortality. Smoking and environmental pollution are the common risk factors for developing lung cancer. Traditionally, lung cancer is divided into small cell and nonsmall cell types, with nonsmall cell carcinomas including squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma.

In this review article, we describe the imaging recommendations and findings in the diagnosis, staging, and management of lung cancer, including the imaging of treatment-related complications.

Keywords

cancer - imaging - lung - recommendations

Publikationsverlauf

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
24. Januar 2023

• References

• 1 Thandra KC, Barsouk A, Saginala K, Aluru JS, Barsouk A. Epidemiology of lung cancer. Contemp Oncol (Pozn) 2021; 25 (01) 45-52
• 2 Mohan A, Garg A, Gupta A. et al. Clinical profile of lung cancer in North India: a 10-year analysis of 1862 patients from a tertiary care center. Lung India 2020; 37 (03) 190-197
• 3 Noronha V, Pinninti R, Patil VM, Joshi A, Prabhash K. Lung cancer in the Indian subcontinent. South Asian J Cancer 2016; 5 (03) 95-103
• 4 Mathur P, Sathishkumar K, Chaturvedi M. et al; ICMR-NCDIR-NCRP Investigator Group. Cancer statistics, 2020: report from National Cancer Registry Programme, India. JCO Glob Oncol 2020; 6: 1063-1075
• 5 Nishino M, Hatabu H, Hodi FS. Imaging of cancer immunotherapy: current approaches and future directions. Radiology 2019; 290 (01) 9-22
• 6 Del Giudice ME, Young SM, Vella ET. et al. Guideline for referral of patients with suspected lung cancer by family physicians and other primary care providers. Can Fam Physician 2014; 60 (08) 711-716 , e376–e382
• 7 Ganti AKP, Loo BWJ, Bassetti M. et al. Small cell lung cancer, Version 2.2022, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2021; 19 (12) 1441-1464
• 8 Ettinger DS, Wood DE, Aisner DL. et al. Non-small cell lung cancer, Version 3.2022, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2022; 20 (05) 497-530
• 9 Ettinger DS, Wood DE, Aisner DL. et al. NCCN guidelines insights: non-small cell lung cancer, Version 2.2021. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2021; 19 (03) 254-266
• 10 Accessed November 15, 2022, at: https://iria.org.in/radiology-imaging-guidelines
• 11 de Groot PM, Chung JH, Ackman JB. et al; Expert Panel on Thoracic Imaging. ACR Appropriateness Criteria^® noninvasive clinical staging of primary lung cancer. J Am Coll Radiol 2019; 16 (5S): S184-S195
• 12 Melosky B, Blais N, Cheema P. et al. Standardizing biomarker testing for Canadian patients with advanced lung cancer. Curr Oncol 2018; 25 (01) 73-82
• 13 Schmidt-Hansen M, Baldwin DR, Hasler E, Zamora J, Abraira V, Roqué I Figuls M. PET-CT for assessing mediastinal lymph node involvement in patients with suspected resectable non-small cell lung cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (11) CD009519
• 14 Brunelli A, Kim AW, Berger KI, Addrizzo-Harris DJ. Physiologic evaluation of the patient with lung cancer being considered for resectional surgery: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013; 143 (5, Suppl): e166S-e190S
• 15 American Cancer Society. Cancer facts & figures 2020. Accessed November 15, 2022, at: https://www.cancer.org/research/cancer-factsstatistics/all-cancer-facts-figures/cancer-facts-figures-2020.html
• 16 Aberle DR, Adams AM, Berg CD. et al; National Lung Screening Trial Research Team. Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening. N Engl J Med 2011; 365 (05) 395-409
• 17 Henschke CI, McCauley DI, Yankelevitz DF. et al. Early Lung Cancer Action Project: overall design and findings from baseline screening. Lancet 1999; 354 (9173): 99-105
• 18 De Koning H, Van Der Aalst C, Ten Haaf K. et al. Effects of volume CT lung cancer screening: mortality results of the NELSON randomized-controlled population-based trial. Paper presented at: 2018 World Conference on Lung Cancer. Abstract PL02.05; 2018
• 19 Kim H, Kim HY, Goo JM, Kim Y. Lung cancer CT screening and lung-RADS in a tuberculosis-endemic country: The Korean Lung Cancer Screening Project (K-LUCAS. Radiology 2020; 296 (01) 181-188
• 20 Yang P. MS16.04 National Lung Screening Program in Taiwan. IASLC 19th World Conf . Lung Cancer 2018; 13 (10, Supplement): S274-S275
• 21 Parang S, Bhavin J. LDCT screening in smokers in India-a pilot, proof-of-concept study. Indian J Radiol Imaging 2021; 31 (02) 318-322
• 22 McKee BJ, Regis SM, McKee AB, Flacke S, Wald C. Performance of ACR lung-RADS in a clinical CT lung screening program. J Am Coll Radiol 2016; 13 (2, Suppl): R25-R29
• 23 Wiener RS, Gould MK, Arenberg DA. et al; ATS/ACCP Committee on Low-Dose CT Lung Cancer Screening in Clinical Practice. An official American Thoracic Society/American College of Chest Physicians policy statement: implementation of low-dose computed tomography lung cancer screening programs in clinical practice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 192 (07) 881-891
• 24 Wood DE, Kazerooni EA, Baum SL. et al. Lung Cancer Screening, Version 3.2018, NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2018; 16 (04) 412-441
• 25 Kauczor HU, Baird AM, Blum TG. et al; European Society of Radiology (ESR) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS). ESR/ERS statement paper on lung cancer screening. Eur Radiol 2020; 30 (06) 3277-3294
• 26 Nitz JA, Erkmen CP. New 2021 USPSTF lung cancer screening criteria-an opportunity to mitigate racial disparity. JAMA Oncol 2022; 8 (03) 383-384
• 27 Kishi K, Homma S, Kurosaki A. et al. Small lung tumors with the size of 1cm or less in diameter: clinical, radiological, and histopathological characteristics. Lung Cancer 2004; 44 (01) 43-51
• 28 Bueno J, Landeras L, Chung JH. Updated Fleischner Society Guidelines for Managing Incidental Pulmonary Nodules: common questions and challenging scenarios. Radiographics 2018; 38 (05) 1337-1350
• 29 Lacasse Y, Wong E, Guyatt GH, Cook DJ. Transthoracic needle aspiration biopsy for the diagnosis of localised pulmonary lesions: a meta-analysis. Thorax 1999; 54 (10) 884-893
• 30 Silvestri GA, Gonzalez AV, Jantz MA. et al. Methods for staging non-small cell lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013; 143 (5, Suppl): e211S-e250S
• 31 Birim O, Kappetein AP, Stijnen T, Bogers AJ. Meta-analysis of positron emission tomographic and computed tomographic imaging in detecting mediastinal lymph node metastases in nonsmall cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 2005; 79 (01) 375-382
• 32 Amin MB. Ed. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual 8th ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2017: 431-455
• 33 Kalemkerian GP, Gadgeel SM. Modern staging of small cell lung cancer. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2013; 11 (01) 99-104
• 34 Eisenhauer EA, Therasse P, Bogaerts J. et al. New response evaluation criteria in solid tumours: revised RECIST guideline (version 1.1). Eur J Cancer 2009; 45 (02) 228-247
• 35 Schwartz LH, Litière S, de Vries E. et al. RECIST 1.1-update and clarification: from the RECIST committee. Eur J Cancer 2016; 62: 132-137
• 36 Seymour L, Bogaerts J, Perrone A. et al; RECIST working group. iRECIST: guidelines for response criteria for use in trials testing immunotherapeutics. Lancet Oncol 2017; 18 (03) e143-e152
• 37 Strange CD, Shroff GS, Truong MT, Nguyen Q-N, Vlahos I, Erasmus JJ. Imaging of the post-radiation chest in lung cancer. Clin Radiol 2022; 77 (01) 19-30
• 38 Huang K, Senthi S, Palma DA. et al. High-risk CT features for detection of local recurrence after stereotactic ablative radiotherapy for lung cancer. Radiother Oncol 2013; 109 (01) 51-57
• 39 Berghmans T, Dingemans AM, Hendriks LEL, Cadranel J. Immunotherapy for nonsmall cell lung cancer: a new therapeutic algorithm. Eur Respir J 2020; 55 (02) 1901907
• 40 Nishino M, Tirumani SH, Ramaiya NH, Hodi FS. Cancer immunotherapy and immune-related response assessment: the role of radiologists in the new arena of cancer treatment. Eur J Radiol 2015; 84 (07) 1259-1268
• 41 Nishino M, Sholl LM, Hodi FS, Hatabu H, Ramaiya NH. Anti-PD-1-related pneumonitis during cancer immunotherapy. N Engl J Med 2015; 373 (03) 288-290
• 42 Nishino M. Imaging of oncologic treatment-related pneumonitis: a focused review on emerging issues of immune checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis, from the AJR special series on inflammation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2022; 218 (01) 19-27
• 43 Nishino M, Ramaiya NH, Awad MM. et al. PD-1 inhibitor-related pneumonitis in advanced cancer patients: radiographic patterns and clinical course. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22 (24) 6051-6060
• 44 Johkoh T, Lee KS, Nishino M. et al. Chest CT diagnosis and clinical management of drug-related pneumonitis in patients receiving molecular targeting agents and immune checkpoint inhibitors: a position paper from the Fleischner Society. Radiology 2021; 298 (03) 550-566
• 45 Schneider BJ, Ismaila N, Aerts J. et al. Lung cancer surveillance after definitive curative-intent therapy: ASCO guideline. J Clin Oncol 2020; 38 (07) 753-766
• 46 Maconachie R, Mercer T, Navani N, McVeigh G. Guideline Committee. Lung cancer: diagnosis and management: summary of updated NICE guidance. BMJ 2019; 364: l1049
• 47 Choi JI. Medically inoperable stage I non-small cell lung cancer: best practices and long-term outcomes. Transl Lung Cancer Res 2019; 8 (01) 32-47