Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2022; 43(01): 150-172
DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1742482
Review Article

Infective Endocarditis: New Challenges in a Classic Disease

Guillermo Cuervo
1   Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Bellvitge – IDIBELL, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
2   Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
,
Marta Hernández-Meneses
2   Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
3   Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
,
Carles Falces
4   Cardiology Service, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
,
Eduard Quintana
5   Cardiovascular Surgery Service, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
,
Bárbara Vidal
4   Cardiology Service, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
,
Francesc Marco
6   Microbiology Service, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
,
Andrés Perissinotti
7   Department of Nuclear Medicine, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
8   Biomedical Research Networking Centre of Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Spain
,
Jordi Carratalà
1   Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Bellvitge – IDIBELL, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
2   Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
,
Jose M. Miro
2   Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
3   Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic – IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
,
The Hospital Clinic and the Hospital of Bellvitge Endocarditis Team Investigators › Author Affiliations Funding J.M.M. received a personal 80:20 research grant from Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain, during 2017 to 2021. This study was supported by CIBERINFEC (CB21/13/00009 and CB21/13/00094), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Infective endocarditis is a relatively rare, but deadly infection, with an overall mortality of around 20% in most series. Clinical manifestations have evolved in response to significant epidemiological shifts in industrialized nations, with a move toward a nosocomial or health-care-related pattern, in older patients, with more episodes associated with prostheses and/or intravascular electronic devices and a predominance of staphylococcal and enterococcal etiology.

Diagnosis is often challenging and is based on the conjunction of clinical, microbiological, and imaging information, with notable progress in recent years in the accuracy of echocardiographic data, coupled with the recent emergence of other useful imaging techniques such as cardiac computed tomography (CT) and nuclear medicine tools, particularly 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission/CT.

The choice of an appropriate treatment for each specific case is complex, both in terms of the selection of the appropriate agent and doses and durations of therapy as well as the possibility of using combined bactericidal antibiotic regimens in the initial phase and finalizing treatment at home in patients with good evolution with outpatient oral or parenteral antimicrobial therapies programs. A relevant proportion of patients will also require valve surgery during the active phase of treatment, the timing of which is extremely difficult to define. For all the above, the management of infective endocarditis requires a close collaboration of multidisciplinary endocarditis teams.

Keywords

infective endocarditis - epidemiology - pathogenesis - diagnostic criteria - cardiac surgery - antimicrobial treatment - outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy (OPAT) - antibiotic prophylaxis

* See Appendix.


Financial disclosures

J.M.M. has received consulting honoraria and/or research grants from Angelini, Contrafect, Cubist, Genentech, Gilead Sciences, Jansen, Lysovant, Medtronic, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, and ViiV Healthcare, outside the submitted work. Other authors, no conflicts.




Publication History

Article published online:
16 February 2022

© 2022. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Lerner PI, Weinstein L. Infective endocarditis in the antibiotic era. N Engl J Med 1966; 274 (04) 199-206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Habib G, Erba PA, Iung B. et al; EURO-ENDO Investigators. Clinical presentation, aetiology and outcome of infective endocarditis. Results of the ESC-EORP EURO-ENDO (European infective endocarditis) registry: a prospective cohort study. Eur Heart J 2019; 40 (39) 3222-3232
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Tleyjeh IM, Steckelberg JM, Murad HS. et al. Temporal trends in infective endocarditis: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. JAMA 2005; 293 (24) 3022-3028
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 DeSimone DC, Lahr BD, Anavekar NS. et al. Temporal trends of infective endocarditis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, between 1970 and 2018: a population-based analysis. Open Forum Infect Dis 2021; 8 (03) b038
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Ambrosioni J, Hernandez-Meneses M, Téllez A. et al; Hospital Clinic Infective Endocarditis Investigators. The changing epidemiology of infective endocarditis in the twenty-first century. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2017; 19 (05) 21
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Yew HS, Murdoch DR. Global trends in infective endocarditis epidemiology. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2012; 14 (04) 367-372
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Slipczuk L, Codolosa JN, Davila CD. et al. Infective endocarditis epidemiology over five decades: a systematic review. PLoS One 2013; 8 (12) e82665
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Geirsson A, Schranz A, Jawitz O. et al. The evolving burden of drug use associated infective endocarditis in the United States. Ann Thorac Surg 2020; 110 (04) 1185-1192
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon 2010. Trends in injecting drug use in Europe. Accessed January 10, 2022: https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/selected-issues/injecting_en
    Google Scholar
  • 10 Cuervo G, Rombauts A, Caballero Q. et al. Twenty-year secular trends in infective endocarditis in a teaching hospital. Open Forum Infect Dis 2018; 5 (08) ofy183
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Olmos C, Vilacosta I, Fernández-Pérez C. et al. The evolving nature of infective endocarditis in spain: a population-based study (2003 to 2014). J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70 (22) 2795-2804
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Escolà-Vergé L, Fernández-Hidalgo N, Larrosa MN, Fernandez-Galera R, Almirante B. Secular trends in the epidemiology and clinical characteristics of Enterococcus faecalis infective endocarditis at a referral center (2007-2018). Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 40 (06) 1137-1148
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Fowler Jr VG, Miro JM, Hoen B. et al; ICE Investigators. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a consequence of medical progress. JAMA 2005; 293 (24) 3012-3021
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Benito N, Miró JM, de Lazzari E. et al; ICE-PCS (International Collaboration on Endocarditis Prospective Cohort Study) Investigators. Health care-associated native valve endocarditis: importance of non-nosocomial acquisition. Ann Intern Med 2009; 150 (09) 586-594
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Pant S, Patel NJ, Deshmukh A. et al. Trends in infective endocarditis incidence, microbiology, and valve replacement in the United States from 2000 to 2011. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015; 65 (19) 2070-2076
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Fernández D, Cevallos J, Brugaletta S. et al. Percutaneous transcatheter aortic valve implantation: present and future perspective. Expert Rev Med Devices 2013; 10 (02) 185-199
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Regueiro A, Linke A, Latib A. et al. Association between transcatheter aortic valve replacement and subsequent infective endocarditis and in-hospital death. JAMA 2016; 316 (10) 1083-1092
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Latib A, Naim C, De Bonis M. et al. TAVR-associated prosthetic valve infective endocarditis: results of a large, multicenter registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; 64 (20) 2176-2178
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Ando T, Ashraf S, Villablanca PA. et al. Meta-analysis comparing the incidence of infective endocarditis following transcatheter aortic valve implantation versus surgical aortic valve replacement. Am J Cardiol 2019; 123 (05) 827-832
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Fauchier L, Bisson A, Herbert J. et al. Incidence and outcomes of infective endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation versus surgical aortic valve replacement. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 26 (10) 1368-1374
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Bjursten H, Rasmussen M, Nozohoor S. et al. Infective endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation: a nationwide study. Eur Heart J 2019; 40 (39) 3263-3269
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Murdoch DR, Corey GR, Hoen B. et al; International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study (ICE-PCS) Investigators. Clinical presentation, etiology, and outcome of infective endocarditis in the 21st century: the International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169 (05) 463-473
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Holland TL, Baddour LM, Bayer AS, Hoen B, Miro JM, Fowler Jr VG. Infective endocarditis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2016; 2: 16059
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Pericàs JM, Llopis J, Cervera C. et al; Hospital Clinic Endocarditis Study Group. Infective endocarditis in patients with an implanted transcatheter aortic valve: clinical characteristics and outcome of a new entity. J Infect 2015; 70 (06) 565-576
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Amat-Santos IJ, Messika-Zeitoun D, Eltchaninoff H. et al. Infective endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation: results from a large multicenter registry. Circulation 2015; 131 (18) 1566-1574
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Del Val D, Abdel-Wahab M, Linke A. et al. Temporal trends, characteristics, and outcomes of infective endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve replacement. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73 (11) e3750-e3758
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Liesenborghs L, Meyers S, Lox M. et al. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: distinct mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to damaged and inflamed heart valves. Eur Heart J 2019; 40 (39) 3248-3259
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Chino F, Kodama A, Otake M, Dock DS. Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis in a Japanese autopsy sample. A review of eighty cases. Am Heart J 1975; 90 (02) 190-198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Gould K, Ramirez-Ronda CH, Holmes RK, Sanford JP. Adherence of bacteria to heart valves in vitro. J Clin Invest 1975; 56 (06) 1364-1370
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Nallapareddy SR, Sillanpää J, Mitchell J. et al. Conservation of Ebp-type pilus genes among Enterococci and demonstration of their role in adherence of Enterococcus faecalis to human platelets. Infect Immun 2011; 79 (07) 2911-2920
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Liesenborghs L, Peetermans M, Claes J. et al. Shear-resistant binding to von Willebrand factor allows staphylococcus lugdunensis to adhere to the cardiac valves and initiate endocarditis. J Infect Dis 2016; 213 (07) 1148-1156
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Liesenborghs L, Verhamme P, Vanassche T. Staphylococcus aureus, master manipulator of the human hemostatic system. J Thromb Haemost 2018; 16 (03) 441-454
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Stewart PS, Costerton JW. Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms. Lancet 2001; 358 (9276): 135-138
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Elgharably H, Hussain ST, Shrestha NK, Blackstone EH, Pettersson GB. Current hypotheses in cardiac surgery: biofilm in infective endocarditis. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2016; 28 (01) 56-59
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Di Domenico EG, Rimoldi SG, Cavallo I. et al. Microbial biofilm correlates with an increased antibiotic tolerance and poor therapeutic outcome in infective endocarditis. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19 (01) 228
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Borstnar CR, Cardellach F. eds. Farreras - Rozman. Medicina Interna. 19th ed.. Barcelona: Elsevier; 2020
    Google Scholar
  • 37 Talha KM, DeSimone DC, Sohail MR, Baddour LM. Pathogen influence on epidemiology, diagnostic evaluation and management of infective endocarditis. Heart 2020; 106 (24) 1878-1882
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Røder BL, Wandall DA, Frimodt-Møller N, Espersen F, Skinhøj P, Rosdahl VT. Clinical features of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a 10-year experience in Denmark. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159 (05) 462-469
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Fernández Hidalgo N, Gharamti AA, Aznar ML. et al. Beta-hemolytic streptococcal infective endocarditis: characteristics and outcomes from a large, multinational cohort. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020; 7 (05) a120
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK. Duke Endocarditis Service. New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Am J Med 1994; 96 (03) 200-209
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Li JS, Sexton DJ, Mick N. et al. Proposed modifications to the Duke criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30 (04) 633-638
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Doherty JU, Kort S, Mehran R, Schoenhagen P, Soman P. ACC/AATS/AHA/ASE/ASNC/HRS/SCAI/SCCT/SCMR/STS 2017 appropriate use criteria for multimodality imaging in valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American Heart Association, American Society of Echocardiography, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Rhythm Society, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70 (13) 1647-1672
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Singh P, Inamdar V, Hage FG. et al. Usefulness of live/real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography in evaluation of prosthetic valve function. Echocardiography 2009; 26 (10) 1236-1249
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Shapira Y, Weisenberg DE, Vaturi M. et al. The impact of intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography in infective endocarditis. Isr Med Assoc J 2007; 9 (04) 299-302
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Habib G, Lancellotti P, Antunes MJ. et al; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: The Task Force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J 2015; 36 (44) 3075-3128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Saby L, Laas O, Habib G. et al. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography for diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis: increased valvular 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake as a novel major criterion. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 61 (23) 2374-2382
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Rouzet F, Chequer R, Benali K. et al. Respective performance of 18F-FDG PET and radiolabeled leukocyte scintigraphy for the diagnosis of prosthetic valve endocarditis. J Nucl Med 2014; 55 (12) 1980-1985
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 de Camargo RA, Sommer Bitencourt M, Meneghetti JC. et al. The role of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography in the diagnosis of left-sided endocarditis: native vs prosthetic valves endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 70 (04) 583-594
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Kouijzer IJE, Berrevoets MAH, Aarntzen EHJG. et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography combined with computed tomography as a diagnostic tool in native valve endocarditis. Nucl Med Commun 2018; 39 (08) 747-752
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Duval X, Le Moing V, Tubiana S. et al; AEPEI-TEPvENDO study group. Impact of systematic whole-body 18f-fluorodeoxyglucose PET/CT on the management of patients suspected of infective endocarditis: the prospective multicenter TEPvENDO study. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73 (03) 393-403
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Philip M, Delcourt S, Mancini J. et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography for the diagnosis of native valve infective endocarditis: a prospective study. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2021; 114 (03) 211-220
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Orvin K, Goldberg E, Bernstine H. et al. The role of FDG-PET/CT imaging in early detection of extra-cardiac complications of infective endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015; 21 (01) 69-76
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Wahadat AR, Tanis W, Swart LE. et al. Added value of 18F-FDG-PET/CT and cardiac CTA in suspected transcatheter aortic valve endocarditis. J Nucl Cardiol 2021; 28 (05) 2072-2082
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Kim IC, Chang S, Hong GR. et al. Comparison of cardiac computed tomography with transesophageal echocardiography for identifying vegetation and intracardiac complications in patients with infective endocarditis in the era of 3-dimensional images. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2018; 11 (03) e006986
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Sifaoui I, Oliver L, Tacher V. et al. Diagnostic performance of transesophageal echocardiography and cardiac computed tomography in infective endocarditis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2020; 33 (12) 1442-1453
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Ye W, Ren G, Zhong X. et al. ECG-gated CT in aortic perivalvular abscess: comparison with transesophageal echocardiography and intraoperative findings. Radiology 2020; 297 (02) 334-341
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Snygg-Martin U, Gustafsson L, Rosengren L. et al. Cerebrovascular complications in patients with left-sided infective endocarditis are common: a prospective study using magnetic resonance imaging and neurochemical brain damage markers. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47 (01) 23-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Duval X, Iung B, Klein I. et al; IMAGE (Resonance Magnetic Imaging at the Acute Phase of Endocarditis) Study Group. Effect of early cerebral magnetic resonance imaging on clinical decisions in infective endocarditis: a prospective study. Ann Intern Med 2010; 152 (08) 497-504 , W175
    Google Scholar
  • 59 Nakamura M, Uzuka T, Sato H. et al. Early surgery with aggressive surgical approach to improve 6-month outcomes in patients with active infective endocarditis: contribution of cerebral preoperative magnetic resonance imaging. Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2019; 67 (05) 427-435
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Chakraborty T, Scharf E, DeSimone D. et al. Variable significance of brain MRI findings in infective endocarditis and its effect on surgical decisions. Mayo Clin Proc 2019; 94 (06) 1024-1032
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Haller S, Vernooij MW, Kuijer JPA, Larsson EM, Jäger HR, Barkhof F. Cerebral microbleeds: imaging and clinical significance. Radiology 2018; 287 (01) 11-28
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Chakraborty T, Scharf E, Rabinstein AA. et al. Utility of brain magnetic resonance imaging in the surgical management of infective endocarditis. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2017; 26 (11) 2527-2535
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Lecomte R, Issa N, Gaborit B. et al. Risk-benefit assessment of systematic thoracoabdominal-pelvic computed tomography in infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 69 (09) 1605-1612
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Shmueli H, Thomas F, Flint N, Setia G, Janjic A, Siegel RJ. Right-sided infective endocarditis 2020: challenges and updates in diagnosis and treatment. J Am Heart Assoc 2020; 9 (15) e017293
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Boleij A, van Gelder MMHJ, Swinkels DW, Tjalsma H. Clinical importance of Streptococcus gallolyticus infection among colorectal cancer patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53 (09) 870-878
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Pericàs JM, Corredoira J, Moreno A. et al; Hospital Clínic and Hospital Lucus Augusti Infective Endocarditis Investigators. Relationship between enterococcus faecalis infective endocarditis and colorectal neoplasm: preliminary results from a cohort of 154 patients. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed) 2017; 70 (06) 451-458
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Escolà-Vergé L, Peghin M, Givone F. et al. Prevalence of colorectal disease in Enterococcus faecalis infective endocarditis: results of an observational multicenter study. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed) 2020; 73 (09) 711-717
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Pericàs JM, Ambrosioni J, Muñoz P. et al; GAMES Investigators. Prevalence of colorectal neoplasms among patients with enterococcus faecalis endocarditis in the GAMES cohort (2008-2017). Mayo Clin Proc 2021; 96 (01) 132-146
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Vollmer T, Piper C, Horstkotte D, Körfer R, Kleesiek K, Dreier J. 23S rDNA real-time polymerase chain reaction of heart valves: a decisive tool in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Eur Heart J 2010; 31 (09) 1105-1113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Luque Paz D, Lakbar I, Tattevin P. A review of current treatment strategies for infective endocarditis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19 (03) 297-307
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS. et al; American Heart Association Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and Stroke Council. Infective endocarditis in adults: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015; 132 (15) 1435-1486
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Cuervo G, Escrihuela-Vidal F, Gudiol C, Carratalà J. Current challenges in the management of infective endocarditis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8: 641243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Carugati M, Petti CA, Arnold C. et al. Antistaphylococcal β-lactams versus vancomycin for treatment of infective endocarditis due to methicillin-susceptible coagulase-negative staphylococci: a prospective cohort study from the international collaboration on endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60 (10) 6341-6349
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Francioli P, Ruch W, Stamboulian D. Treatment of streptococcal endocarditis with a single daily dose of ceftriaxone and netilmicin for 14 days: a prospective multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21 (06) 1406-1410
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Knoll B, Tleyjeh IM, Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR, Baddour LM. Infective endocarditis due to penicillin-resistant viridans group streptococci. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44 (12) 1585-1592
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Lebeaux D, Fernández-Hidalgo N, Pilmis B, Tattevin P, Mainardi JL. Aminoglycosides for infective endocarditis: time to say goodbye?. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 26 (06) 723-728
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Dahl A, Rasmussen RV, Bundgaard H. et al. Enterococcus faecalis infective endocarditis: a pilot study of the relationship between duration of gentamicin treatment and outcome. Circulation 2013; 127 (17) 1810-1817
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Gavaldà J, Len O, Miró JM. et al. Brief communication: treatment of Enterococcus faecalis endocarditis with ampicillin plus ceftriaxone. Ann Intern Med 2007; 146 (08) 574-579
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Fernández-Hidalgo N, Almirante B, Gavaldà J. et al. Ampicillin plus ceftriaxone is as effective as ampicillin plus gentamicin for treating enterococcus faecalis infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56 (09) 1261-1268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Korzeniowski O, Sande MA. Combination antimicrobial therapy for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in patients addicted to parenteral drugs and in nonaddicts: a prospective study. Ann Intern Med 1982; 97 (04) 496-503
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Cosgrove SE, Vigliani GA, Fowler Jr VG. et al. Initial low-dose gentamicin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and endocarditis is nephrotoxic. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48 (06) 713-721
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Ramos-Martínez A, Muñoz Serrano A, de Alarcón González A. et al; Spanish Collaboration on Endocarditis – Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de la Endocarditis Infecciosa en España (GAMES). Gentamicin may have no effect on mortality of staphylococcal prosthetic valve endocarditis. J Infect Chemother 2018; 24 (07) 555-562
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Riedel DJ, Weekes E, Forrest GN. Addition of rifampin to standard therapy for treatment of native valve infective endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52 (07) 2463-2467
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Shrestha NK, Shah SY, Wang H. et al. Rifampin for surgically treated staphylococcal infective endocarditis: a propensity score-adjusted cohort study. Ann Thorac Surg 2016; 101 (06) 2243-2250
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 García-de-la-Mària C, Gasch O, Castañeda X. et al; Hospital Clínic Endocarditis Study Group. Cloxacillin or fosfomycin plus daptomycin combinations are more active than cloxacillin monotherapy or combined with gentamicin against MSSA in a rabbit model of experimental endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2020; 75 (12) 3586-3592
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Ribera E, Gómez-Jimenez J, Cortes E. et al. Effectiveness of cloxacillin with and without gentamicin in short-term therapy for right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125 (12) 969-974
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Olmos C, Vilacosta I, López J. et al. Short-course antibiotic regimen compared to conventional antibiotic treatment for gram-positive cocci infective endocarditis: randomized clinical trial (SATIE). BMC Infect Dis 2020; 20 (01) 417
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Wilson WR, Wilkowske CJ, Wright AJ, Sande MA, Geraci JE. Treatment of streptomycin-susceptible and streptomycin-resistant enterococcal endocarditis. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100 (06) 816-823
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Ramos-Martínez A, Pericàs JM, Fernández-Cruz A. et al; Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de la Endocarditis Infecciosa en España (GAMES). Four weeks versus six weeks of ampicillin plus ceftriaxone in Enterococcus faecalis native valve endocarditis: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One 2020; 15 (08) e0237011
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Morris AJ, Drinković D, Pottumarthy S, MacCulloch D, Kerr AR, West T. Bacteriological outcome after valve surgery for active infective endocarditis: implications for duration of treatment after surgery. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41 (02) 187-194
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Muñoz P, Giannella M, Scoti F. et al; Group for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the Gregorio Marañón Hospital (GAME). Two weeks of postsurgical therapy may be enough for high-risk cases of endocarditis caused by Streptococcus viridans or Streptococcus bovis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18 (03) 293-299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Destache CJ, Guervil DJ, Kaye KS. Ceftaroline fosamil for the treatment of Gram-positive endocarditis: CAPTURE study experience. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2019; 53 (05) 644-649
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Tascini C, Attanasio V, Ripa M. et al. Ceftobiprole for the treatment of infective endocarditis: a case series. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2020; 20: 56-59
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Rodríguez-García R, Rodríguez-Esteban MÁ, García-Carús E, Telenti M, Fernández J. In vitro activity of ceftaroline and ceftobiprole against clinical isolates of Gram-positive bacteria from infective endocarditis: are these drugs potential options for the initial management of this disease?. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 98 (04) 115153
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Werth BJ, Barber KE, Tran KNT. et al. Ceftobiprole and ampicillin increase daptomycin susceptibility of daptomycin-susceptible and -resistant VRE. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70 (02) 489-493
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Sader HS, Mendes RE, Pfaller MA, Flamm RK. Antimicrobial activity of dalbavancin tested against Gram-positive organisms isolated from patients with infective endocarditis in US and European medical centres. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019; 74 (05) 1306-1310
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Tobudic S, Forstner C, Burgmann H. et al. Dalbavancin as primary and sequential treatment for gram-positive infective endocarditis: 2-year experience at the general hospital of vienna. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67 (05) 795-798
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Hidalgo-Tenorio C, Vinuesa D, Plata A. et al. DALBACEN cohort: dalbavancin as consolidation therapy in patients with endocarditis and/or bloodstream infection produced by gram-positive cocci. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2019; 18 (01) 30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Andrews MM, von Reyn CF. Patient selection criteria and management guidelines for outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy for native valve infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33 (02) 203-209
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Pericà S JM, Llopis J, González-Ramallo V. et al; Spanish Collaboration on Endocarditis-Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de la Endocarditis Infecciosa en España (GAMES) investigators. Outpatient parenteral antibiotic treatment for infective endocarditis: a prospective cohort study from the GAMES cohort. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 69 (10) 1690-1700
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Heldman AW, Hartert TV, Ray SC. et al. Oral antibiotic treatment of right-sided staphylococcal endocarditis in injection drug users: prospective randomized comparison with parenteral therapy. Am J Med 1996; 101 (01) 68-76
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Mzabi A, Kernéis S, Richaud C, Podglajen I, Fernandez-Gerlinger MP, Mainardi JL. Switch to oral antibiotics in the treatment of infective endocarditis is not associated with increased risk of mortality in non-severely ill patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22 (07) 607-612
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Stamboulian D, Bonvehi P, Arevalo C. et al. Antibiotic management of outpatients with endocarditis due to penicillin-susceptible streptococci. Rev Infect Dis 1991; 13 (Suppl. 02) S160-S163
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Iversen K, Ihlemann N, Gill SU. et al. Partial oral versus intravenous antibiotic treatment of endocarditis. N Engl J Med 2019; 380 (05) 415-424
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Lalani T, Cabell CH, Benjamin DK. et al; International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study (ICE-PCS) Investigators. Analysis of the impact of early surgery on in-hospital mortality of native valve endocarditis: use of propensity score and instrumental variable methods to adjust for treatment-selection bias. Circulation 2010; 121 (08) 1005-1013
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Lalani T, Chu VH, Park LP. et al; International Collaboration on Endocarditis–Prospective Cohort Study Investigators. In-hospital and 1-year mortality in patients undergoing early surgery for prosthetic valve endocarditis. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173 (16) 1495-1504
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Chirouze C, Alla F, Fowler Jr VG. et al; ICE Prospective Investigators. Impact of early valve surgery on outcome of Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic valve infective endocarditis: analysis in the International Collaboration of Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60 (05) 741-749
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Armiñanzas C, Fariñas-Alvarez C, Zarauza J. et al; Spanish Collaboration on Endocarditis—Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de la Endocarditis Infecciosa en Espana Study Group. Role of age and comorbidities in mortality of patients with infective endocarditis. Eur J Intern Med 2019; 64 (March): 63-71
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Bikdeli B, Wang Y, Kim N, Desai MM, Quagliarello V, Krumholz HM. Trends in hospitalization rates and outcomes of endocarditis among Medicare beneficiaries. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62 (23) 2217-2226
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Pericàs JM, Hernández-Meneses M, Muñoz P. et al; Spanish Collaboration on Endocarditis—Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de la Endocarditis Infecciosa en España (GAMES). Characteristics and outcome of acute heart failure in infective endocarditis: focus on cardiogenic shock. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73 (05) 765-774
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Krajinovic V, Ivancic S, Gezman P, Barsic B. Association between cardiac surgery and mortality among patients with infective endocarditis complicated by sepsis and septic shock. Shock 2018; 49 (05) 536-542
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Olmos C, Vilacosta I, Fernández C. et al. Contemporary epidemiology and prognosis of septic shock in infective endocarditis. Eur Heart J 2013; 34 (26) 1999-2006
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Pericàs JM, Hernández-Meneses M, Muñoz P. et al. Outcomes and risk factors of septic shock in patients with infective endocarditis: a prospective cohort study. Open Forum Infect Dis 2021; 8 (06) b119
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Suárez Bagnasco M, Núñez-Gil IJ. Infective endocarditis and thoracic aortic disease: a review on forgotten psychological aspects. World J Cardiol 2017; 9 (07) 620-628
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M. et al; American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation 2007; 116 (15) 1736-1754
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Habib G, Hoen B, Tornos P. et al; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines, Endorsed by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the International Society of Chemotherapy (ISC) for Infection and Cancer. Guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infective endocarditis (new version 2009): the Task Force on the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the International Society of Chemotherapy (ISC) for Infection and Cancer. Eur Heart J 2009; 30 (19) 2369-2413
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Wilson WR, Gewitz M, Lockhart PB. et al; American Heart Association Young Hearts Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Lifelong Congenital Heart Disease and Heart Health in the Young; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; and the Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Prevention of Viridans Group Streptococcal infective endocarditis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2021; 143 (20) e963-e978
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar