Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2018; 39(03): 310-324
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1661383
Review Article
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Management of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis

Charles L. Daley
1   Division of Mycobacterial and Respiratory Infections, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado
2   Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
3   Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
,
Jose A. Caminero
4   Servicio de Neumologia, Hospital General de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Canary Islands, Spain
5   International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union), Paris, France
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
02 August 2018 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis pose a major threat to global tuberculosis control. Despite the availability of curative antituberculosis therapy for nearly half a century, inappropriate and inadequate treatment of tuberculosis, as well as unchecked transmission of M. tuberculosis, has resulted in alarming levels of drug-resistant tuberculosis. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there were 600,000 cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB)/rifampin-resistant (RR) tuberculosis in 2016, defined as strains that are resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin. Globally, WHO estimates that 4.1% of new tuberculosis cases and 19% of retreatment cases have MDR-TB. By the end of 2016, 123 countries had reported at least one case of extensively drug-resistant strains, which are MDR-TB strains that have acquired additional resistance to fluoroquinolones and at least one second-line injectable. It is estimated that only 22% of all MDR-TB cases are currently receiving therapy. This article reviews the management of MDR/RR-TB and updates recommendations regarding the use of shorter course regimens and new drugs.

Keywords

tuberculosis - drug-resistant tuberculosis - MDR-TB - XDR-TB - management
 

  • References

  • 1 WHO. Global Tuberculosis Report 2017. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017
    Google Scholar
  • 2 WHO. The End TB Strategy. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014
    Google Scholar
  • 3 Boehme CC, Nabeta P, Hillemann D. , et al. Rapid molecular detection of tuberculosis and rifampin resistance. N Engl J Med 2010; 363 (11) 1005-1015
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Hillemann D, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Richter E. Evaluation of the GenoType MTBDRplus assay for rifampin and isoniazid susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains and clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45 (08) 2635-2640
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Caminero JA, Scardigli A. Classification of antituberculosis drugs: a new proposal based on the most recent evidence. Eur Respir J 2015; 46 (04) 887-893
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Caminero JA. Guidelines for clinical and operational management of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Paris: 2013
    Google Scholar
  • 7 WHO. Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: 2016 Update. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016
    Google Scholar
  • 8 WHO. The Use of Bedaquiline in the Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis: Interim Policy Guidance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013
    Google Scholar
  • 9 WHO. The Use of Delamanid in the Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis: Interim Policy Guidance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014
    Google Scholar
  • 10 WHO. The Use of Delamanid in the Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Children and Adolescents: Interim Policy Guidance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016
    Google Scholar
  • 11 WHO. Position Statement on the Continued Use of the Shorter MDR-TB Regimen following an Expedited Review of the STREAM Stage 1 Preliminary Results. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018
    Google Scholar
  • 12 Migliori GB, Lange C, Girardi E. , et al; SMIRA/TBNET Study Group. Fluoroquinolones: are they essential to treat multidrug-resistant tuberculosis?. Eur Respir J 2008; 31 (04) 904-905
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Chan ED, Laurel V, Strand MJ. , et al. Treatment and outcome analysis of 205 patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169 (10) 1103-1109
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Chiang CY, Enarson DA, Yu MC. , et al. Outcome of pulmonary multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a 6-yr follow-up study. Eur Respir J 2006; 28 (05) 980-985
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Zignol M, Dean AS, Alikhanova N. , et al. Population-based resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates to pyrazinamide and fluoroquinolones: results from a multicountry surveillance project. Lancet Infect Dis 2016; 16 (10) 1185-1192
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Yew WW, Chan CK, Leung CC. , et al. Comparative roles of levofloxacin and ofloxacin in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: preliminary results of a retrospective study from Hong Kong. Chest 2003; 124 (04) 1476-1481
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Johnson JL, Hadad DJ, Boom WH. , et al. Early and extended early bactericidal activity of levofloxacin, gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin in pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006; 10 (06) 605-612
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Peloquin CA, Hadad DJ, Molino LP. , et al. Population pharmacokinetics of levofloxacin, gatifloxacin, and moxifloxacin in adults with pulmonary tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52 (03) 852-857
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Rustomjee R, Lienhardt C, Kanyok T. , et al; Gatifloxacin for TB (OFLOTUB) study team. A Phase II study of the sterilising activities of ofloxacin, gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin in pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2008; 12 (02) 128-138
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Lee J, Lee CH, Kim DK. , et al. Retrospective comparison of levofloxacin and moxifloxacin on multidrug-resistant tuberculosis treatment outcomes. Korean J Intern Med 2011; 26 (02) 153-159
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Kam KM, Yip CW, Cheung TL, Tang HS, Leung OC, Chan MY. Stepwise decrease in moxifloxacin susceptibility amongst clinical isolates of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis: correlation with ofloxacin susceptibility. Microb Drug Resist 2006; 12 (01) 7-11
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Cheng AF, Yew WW, Chan EW, Chin ML, Hui MM, Chan RC. Multiplex PCR amplimer conformation analysis for rapid detection of gyrA mutations in fluoroquinolone-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48 (02) 596-601
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 WHO. The Use of Molecular Line Probe Assays for the Detection of Resistance to Second-Line Anti-Tuberculosis Drugs: Policy Guidance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016
    Google Scholar
  • 24 Caminero JA, Sotgiu G, Zumla A, Migliori GB. Best drug treatment for multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10 (09) 621-629
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Crowle AJ, Sbarbaro JA, Judson FN, Douvas GS, May MH. Inhibition by streptomycin of tubercle bacilli within cultured human macrophages. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130 (05) 839-844
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 WHO. Guidelines for the Programmatic Management of Drug-Resistant tuberculosis. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011
    Google Scholar
  • 27 Caminero JA. ; World Health Organization; American Thoracic Society; British Thoracic Society. Treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: evidence and controversies. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006; 10 (08) 829-837
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Heifets L, Lindholm-Levy P. Comparison of bactericidal activities of streptomycin, amikacin, kanamycin, and capreomycin against Mycobacterium avium and M. tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989; 33 (08) 1298-1301
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Seddon JA, Godfrey-Faussett P, Jacobs K, Ebrahim A, Hesseling AC, Schaaf HS. Hearing loss in patients on treatment for drug-resistant tuberculosis. Eur Respir J 2012; 40 (05) 1277-1286
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Reuter A, Tisile P, von Delft D. , et al. The devil we know: is the use of injectable agents for the treatment of MDR-TB justified?. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 (11) 1114-1126
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Georghiou SB, Magana M, Garfein RS, Catanzaro DG, Catanzaro A, Rodwell TC. Evaluation of genetic mutations associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis resistance to amikacin, kanamycin and capreomycin: a systematic review. PLoS One 2012; 7 (03) e33275
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Alangaden GJ, Kreiswirth BN, Aouad A. , et al. Mechanism of resistance to amikacin and kanamycin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42 (05) 1295-1297
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Krüüner A, Jureen P, Levina K, Ghebremichael S, Hoffner S. Discordant resistance to kanamycin and amikacin in drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47 (09) 2971-2973
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Maus CE, Plikaytis BB, Shinnick TM. Molecular analysis of cross-resistance to capreomycin, kanamycin, amikacin, and viomycin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49 (08) 3192-3197
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Sotgiu G, Centis R, D'Ambrosio L. , et al. Efficacy, safety and tolerability of linezolid containing regimens in treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 2012; 40 (06) 1430-1442
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Cox H, Ford N. Linezolid for the treatment of complicated drug-resistant tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2012; 16 (04) 447-454
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Koh WJ, Kwon OJ, Gwak H. , et al. Daily 300 mg dose of linezolid for the treatment of intractable multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 64 (02) 388-391
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Xu HB, Jiang RH, Li L, Xiao HP. Linezolid in the treatment of MDR-TB: a retrospective clinical study. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2012; 16 (03) 358-363
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Lee M, Cho SN, Barry III CE, Song T, Kim Y, Jeong I. Linezolid for XDR-TB--final study outcomes. N Engl J Med 2015; 373 (03) 290-291
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Lee M, Lee J, Carroll MW. , et al. Linezolid for treatment of chronic extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2012; 367 (16) 1508-1518
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Tang S, Yao L, Hao X. , et al. Clofazimine for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled study in China. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60 (09) 1361-1367
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Migliori GB, Eker B, Richardson MD. , et al; TBNET Study Group. A retrospective TBNET assessment of linezolid safety, tolerability and efficacy in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Eur Respir J 2009; 34 (02) 387-393
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Dooley KE, Mitnick CD, Ann DeGroote M. , et al; Efficacy Subgroup, RESIST-TB. Old drugs, new purpose: retooling existing drugs for optimized treatment of resistant tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55 (04) 572-581
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Scardigli A, Caminero JA, Sotgiu G, Centis R, D'Ambrosio L, Migliori GB. Efficacy and tolerability of ethionamide versus prothionamide: a systematic review. Eur Respir J 2016; 48 (03) 946-952
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Dooley KE, Obuku EA, Durakovic N, Belitsky V, Mitnick C, Nuermberger EL. ; Efficacy Subgroup, RESIST-TB. World Health Organization group 5 drugs for the treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis: unclear efficacy or untapped potential?. J Infect Dis 2013; 207 (09) 1352-1358
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Xu J, Lu Y, Fu L. , et al. In vitro and in vivo activity of clofazimine against Mycobacterium tuberculosis persisters. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2012; 16 (08) 1119-1125
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Dey T, Brigden G, Cox H, Shubber Z, Cooke G, Ford N. Outcomes of clofazimine for the treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68 (02) 284-293
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Xu HB, Jiang RH, Xiao HP. Clofazimine in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18 (11) 1104-1110
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Dalcolmo M, Gayoso R, Sotgiu G. , et al. Effectiveness and safety of clofazimine in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a nationwide report from Brazil. Eur Respir J 2017; 49 (03) 49
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Van Deun A, Maug AK, Salim MA. , et al. Short, highly effective, and inexpensive standardized treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 182 (05) 684-692
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Van Deun A, Salim MA, Das AP, Bastian I, Portaels F. Results of a standardised regimen for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Bangladesh. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004; 8 (05) 560-567
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Epstein IG, Nair KG, Boyd LJ, Auspitz P. Cycloserine-isoniazid combination therapy in virgin cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. Dis Chest 1958; 33 (04) 371-381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Angel JH, Bhatia AL, Devadatta S. , et al. A controlled comparison of cycloserine plus ethionamide with cycloserine plus thiacetazone in patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis despite prolonged previous chemotherapy. Tubercle 1963; 44: 215-224
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Shi W, Zhang X, Jiang X. , et al. Pyrazinamide inhibits trans-translation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Science 2011; 333 (6049): 1630-1632
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Tousek J, Jancik E, Zelenka M, Jancikova-Máková M. The results of treatment in patients with cultures resistant to streptomycin, isoniazid and PAS: a five-year follow-up. Tubercle 1967; 48 (01) 27-31
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Zierski M, Zachara A. Late results in re-treatment of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Tubercle 1970; 51 (02) 172-177
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Somner AR, Brace AA. Late results of treatment of chronic drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. BMJ 1966; 1 (5490): 775-778
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Mitnick C, Bayona J, Palacios E. , et al. Community-based therapy for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Lima, Peru. N Engl J Med 2003; 348 (02) 119-128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Migliori GB, Besozzi G, Girardi E. , et al; SMIRA/TBNET Study Group. Clinical and operational value of the extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis definition. Eur Respir J 2007; 30 (04) 623-626
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 WHO. Guidelines for the programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008
    Google Scholar
  • 61 Gagneux S, Burgos MV, DeRiemer K. , et al. Impact of bacterial genetics on the transmission of isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis . PLoS Pathog 2006; 2 (06) e61
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Cambau E, Viveiros M, Machado D. , et al. Revisiting susceptibility testing in MDR-TB by a standardized quantitative phenotypic assessment in a European multicentre study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70 (03) 686-696
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Morlock GP, Metchock B, Sikes D, Crawford JT, Cooksey RC. ethA, inhA, and katG loci of ethionamide-resistant clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47 (12) 3799-3805
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Banerjee A, Dubnau E, Quemard A. , et al. inhA, a gene encoding a target for isoniazid and ethionamide in Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Science 1994; 263 (5144): 227-230
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Warren RM, Streicher EM, Gey van Pittius NC. , et al. The clinical relevance of Mycobacterial pharmacogenetics. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2009; 89 (03) 199-202
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Rieder HL, Van Deun A. Rationale for high-dose isoniazid in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 (01) 123-124
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Cynamon MH, Zhang Y, Harpster T, Cheng S, DeStefano MS. High-dose isoniazid therapy for isoniazid-resistant murine Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43 (12) 2922-2924
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Katiyar SK, Bihari S, Prakash S, Mamtani M, Kulkarni H. A randomised controlled trial of high-dose isoniazid adjuvant therapy for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2008; 12 (02) 139-145
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Caminero JA, Piubello A, Scardigli A, Migliori GB. Proposal for a standardised treatment regimen to manage pre- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis cases. Eur Respir J 2017; 50 (01) 50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Schaaf HS, Moll AP, Dheda K. Multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Africa and South America: epidemiology, diagnosis and management in adults and children. Clin Chest Med 2009; 30 (04) 667-683 , vii–viii
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Diacon AH, Pym A, Grobusch M. , et al. The diarylquinoline TMC207 for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2009; 360 (23) 2397-2405
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Huitric E, Verhasselt P, Koul A, Andries K, Hoffner S, Andersson DI. Rates and mechanisms of resistance development in Mycobacterium tuberculosis to a novel diarylquinoline ATP synthase inhibitor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54 (03) 1022-1028
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Hartkoorn RC, Uplekar S, Cole ST. Cross-resistance between clofazimine and bedaquiline through upregulation of MmpL5 in Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58 (05) 2979-2981
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Almeida D, Ioerger T, Tyagi S. , et al. Mutations in pepQ confer low-level resistance to bedaquiline and clofazimine in Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60 (08) 4590-4599
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Diacon AH, Donald PR, Pym A. , et al. Randomized pilot trial of eight weeks of bedaquiline (TMC207) treatment for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: long-term outcome, tolerability, and effect on emergence of drug resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56 (06) 3271-3276
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Pym AS, Diacon AH, Tang SJ. , et al; TMC207-C209 Study Group. Bedaquiline in the treatment of multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Eur Respir J 2016; 47 (02) 564-574
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Borisov SE, Dheda K, Enwerem M. , et al. Effectiveness and safety of bedaquiline-containing regimens in the treatment of MDR- and XDR-TB: a multicentre study. Eur Respir J 2017; 49 (05) 49
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Cox V, Brigden G, Crespo RH. , et al. Global programmatic use of bedaquiline and delamanid for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2018; 22 (04) 407-412
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Gler MT, Skripconoka V, Sanchez-Garavito E. , et al. Delamanid for multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2012; 366 (23) 2151-2160
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Chang KC, Chung-Ching Leung E, Law WS. , et al. Early experience with delamanid-containing regimens in the treatment of complicated multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Hong Kong. Eur Respir J 2018; 1800159
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Kuksa L, Barkane L, Hittel N, Gupta R. Final treatment outcomes of multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis patients in Latvia receiving delamanid-containing regimens. Eur Respir J 2017; 50 (05) 50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Hewison C, Ferlazzo G, Avaliani Z. , et al. Six-month response to delamanid treatment in MDR TB patients. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23 (10) 23
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Hafkin J, Hittel N, Martin A, Gupta R. Early outcomes in MDR-TB and XDR-TB patients treated with delamanid under compassionate use. Eur Respir J 2017; 50 (01) 50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Ferlazzo G, Mohr E, Laxmeshwar C. , et al. Early safety and efficacy of the combination of bedaquiline and delamanid for the treatment of patients with drug-resistant tuberculosis in Armenia, India, and South Africa: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2018; 18 (05) 536-544
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Migliori GB, Pontali E, Sotgiu G. , et al. Combined use of delamanid and bedaquiline to treat multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a systematic review. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18 (02) 18
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Guglielmetti L, Barkane L, Le Dû D. , et al. Safety and efficacy of exposure to bedaquiline-delamanid in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a case series from France and Latvia. Eur Respir J 2018; 51 (03) 51
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Kim CT, Kim TO, Shin HJ. , et al. Bedaquiline and delamanid for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a multicentre cohort study in Korea. Eur Respir J 2018; 51 (03) 51
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Mathys V, Wintjens R, Lefevre P. , et al. Molecular genetics of para-aminosalicylic acid resistance in clinical isolates and spontaneous mutants of Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53 (05) 2100-2109
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 PARA-AMINOSALICYLIC acid treatment in pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Tuberc 1950; 61 (05) 597-612
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Chambers HF, Turner J, Schecter GF, Kawamura M, Hopewell PC. Imipenem for treatment of tuberculosis in mice and humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49 (07) 2816-2821
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 De Lorenzo S, Alffenaar JW, Sotgiu G. , et al. Efficacy and safety of meropenem-clavulanate added to linezolid-containing regimens in the treatment of MDR-/XDR-TB. Eur Respir J 2013; 41 (06) 1386-1392
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Tiberi S, Payen MC, Sotgiu G. , et al. Effectiveness and safety of meropenem/clavulanate-containing regimens in the treatment of MDR- and XDR-TB. Eur Respir J 2016; 47 (04) 1235-1243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Tiberi S, Sotgiu G, D'Ambrosio L. , et al. Comparison of effectiveness and safety of imipenem/clavulanate- versus meropenem/clavulanate-containing regimens in the treatment of MDR- and XDR-TB. Eur Respir J 2016; 47 (06) 1758-1766
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Tiberi S, Sotgiu G, D'Ambrosio L. , et al. Effectiveness and safety of imipenem-clavulanate added to an optimized background regimen (OBR) versus OBR control regimens in the treatment of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 62 (09) 1188-1190
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Tiberi S, D'Ambrosio L, De Lorenzo S. , et al. Ertapenem in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: first clinical experience. Eur Respir J 2016; 47 (01) 333-336
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Trébucq A, Schwoebel V, Kashongwe Z. , et al. Treatment outcome with a short multidrug-resistant tuberculosis regimen in nine African countries. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2018; 22 (01) 17-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Ahmad Khan F, Salim MAH, du Cros P. , et al. Effectiveness and safety of standardised shorter regimens for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: individual patient data and aggregate data meta-analyses. Eur Respir J 2017; 50 (01) 1700061
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Xu HB, Jiang RH, Li L. Pulmonary resection for patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66 (08) 1687-1695
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Kempker RR, Vashakidze S, Solomonia N, Dzidzikashvili N, Blumberg HM. Surgical treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2012; 12 (02) 157-166
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Pomerantz BJ, Cleveland Jr JC, Olson HK, Pomerantz M. Pulmonary resection for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001; 121 (03) 448-453
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Fox GJ, Mitnick CD, Benedetti A. , et al; Collaborative Group for Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data in MDR-TB. Surgery as an adjunctive treatment for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: an individual patient data metaanalysis. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 62 (07) 887-895
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Nahid P, Dorman SE, Alipanah N. , et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 63 (07) e147-e195
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Seddon JA, Hesseling AC, Marais BJ. , et al. Paediatric use of second-line anti-tuberculosis agents: a review. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2012; 92 (01) 9-17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Schaaf HS, Marais BJ. Management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in children: a survival guide for paediatricians. Paediatr Respir Rev 2011; 12 (01) 31-38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Ettehad D, Schaaf HS, Seddon JA, Cooke GS, Ford N. Treatment outcomes for children with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2012; 12 (06) 449-456
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Achar J, Hewison C, Cavalheiro AP. , et al. Off-label use of bedaquiline in children and adolescents with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23 (10) 23
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW. , et al. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 2006; 368 (9547): 1575-1580
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Blanc FX, Sok T, Laureillard D. , et al; CAMELIA (ANRS 1295–CIPRA KH001) Study Team. Earlier versus later start of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adults with tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365 (16) 1471-1481
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Abdool Karim SS, Naidoo K, Grobler A. , et al. Integration of antiretroviral therapy with tuberculosis treatment. N Engl J Med 2011; 365 (16) 1492-1501
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Bastos ML, Lan Z, Menzies D. An updated systematic review and meta-analysis for treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Eur Respir J 2017; 49 (03) 49
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Johnston JC, Shahidi NC, Sadatsafavi M, Fitzgerald JM. Treatment outcomes of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2009; 4 (09) e6914
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Orenstein EW, Basu S, Shah NS. , et al. Treatment outcomes among patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2009; 9 (03) 153-161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Jacobson KR, Tierney DB, Jeon CY, Mitnick CD, Murray MB. Treatment outcomes among patients with extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51 (01) 6-14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Kurbatova EV, Taylor A, Gammino VM. , et al. Predictors of poor outcomes among patients treated for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis at DOTS-plus projects. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2012; 92 (05) 397-403
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Kurbatova EV, Gammino VM, Bayona J. , et al. Frequency and type of microbiological monitoring of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis treatment. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011; 15 (11) 1553-1555 , ii.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Nathanson E, Gupta R, Huamani P. , et al. Adverse events in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: results from the DOTS-Plus initiative. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004; 8 (11) 1382-1384
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Bloss E, Kuksa L, Holtz TH. , et al. Adverse events related to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis treatment, Latvia, 2000-2004. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010; 14 (03) 275-281
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Tiberi S, Muñoz-Torrico M, Duarte R, Dalcolmo M, D'Ambrosio L, Migliori GB. New drugs and perspectives for new anti-tuberculosis regimens. Pulmonology 2018; 24 (02) 86-98
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Grosset JH, Singer TG, Bishai WR. New drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis: hope and reality. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2012; 16 (08) 1005-1014
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Diacon AH, Dawson R, von Groote-Bidlingmaier F. , et al. 14-day bactericidal activity of PA-824, bedaquiline, pyrazinamide, and moxifloxacin combinations: a randomised trial. Lancet 2012; 380 (9846): 986-993
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Conradie F, Diacon AH, Everitt D. , et al. Interim results of nix-TB clinical study of pretomanid, bedaquiline, and linezolid for treatment of XDR and treatment intolerant/failed MDR-TB. Abstract OA-3117. Presented at the 47th Union World Conference on Lung Health, 2016
    PubMedGoogle Scholar