Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2016; 37(02): 181-198
DOI: 10.1055/s-0036-1572556
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Epidemiology of HIV-Associated Lung Disease in the United States

Meghan Fitzpatrick
1   Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
,
John T. Brooks
2   Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
,
Jonathan E. Kaplan
3   Division of Global HIV and TB, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
14 March 2016 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The epidemiology of HIV infection and its pulmonary complications in the United States has evolved significantly over nearly 20 years since the advent of combination antiretroviral therapy. While infectious complications are less of a threat to patients whose immune systems have been restored, many HIV-infected persons in the United States remain at high risk for opportunistic infection because they are unaware of their HIV infection, have difficulty maintaining linkage to care, or maintain inadequate viral control. Bacterial pneumonia and Pneumocystis pneumonia remain significantly more prevalent among HIV-infected persons, and together with seasonal influenza are areas where public health efforts to increase antiretroviral therapy, appropriate prophylaxis, and vaccination may decrease burden of disease. Noninfectious pulmonary complications of chronic HIV infection are increasingly recognized in the United States and elsewhere. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pulmonary hypertension, sleep-disordered breathing, and primary lung cancer may all be more common among persons with HIV; of concern, disease burden in U.S. HIV-infected persons may be underestimated due to lack of diagnostic testing for these conditions. Smoking is among the most prevalent preventable causes of morbidity and mortality affecting persons living with HIV infection, and has particular import to pulmonary disease. As of 2009, 42% of HIV-infected adults in medical care in the United States smoked tobacco (over twice the national rate in the general population). Successful efforts to promote smoking cessation among HIV-infected persons are of critical importance to decrease the burden of chronic pulmonary disease.

Keywords

HIV - epidemiology - smoking - pneumonia - Pneumocystis - pulmonary disease - chronic obstructive - lung cancer

Note

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the National Institutes of Health.


 

  • References

  • 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data–United States and 6 dependent areas–2013. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2015:20. [cited August 2015]; Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/surveillance/
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Bradley H, Hall HI, Wolitski RJ , et al. Vital signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV—United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014; 63 (47) 1113-1117
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Hall HI, Song R, Rhodes P , et al; HIV Incidence Surveillance Group. Estimation of HIV incidence in the United States. JAMA 2008; 300 (5) 520-529
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Prejean J, Song R, Hernandez A , et al; HIV Incidence Surveillance Group. Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2006-2009. PLoS ONE 2011; 6 (8) e17502
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Brooks JT, Buchacz K, Gebo KA, Mermin J. HIV infection and older Americans: the public health perspective. Am J Public Health 2012; 102 (8) 1516-1526
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Effros RB, Fletcher CV, Gebo K , et al. Aging and infectious diseases: workshop on HIV infection and aging: what is known and future research directions. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47 (4) 542-553
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Justice AC. HIV and aging: time for a new paradigm. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2010; 7 (2) 69-76
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Hunt PW. HIV and aging: emerging research issues. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2014; 9 (4) 302-308
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Mdodo R, Frazier EL, Dube SR , et al. Cigarette smoking prevalence among adults with HIV compared with the general adult population in the United States: cross-sectional surveys. Ann Intern Med 2015; 162 (5) 335-344
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Hay JW, Osmond DH, Jacobson MA. Projecting the medical costs of AIDS and ARC in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1988; 1 (5) 466-485
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 McKenzie R, Travis WD, Dolan SA , et al. The causes of death in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a clinical and pathologic study with emphasis on the role of pulmonary diseases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1991; 70 (5) 326-343
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Wallace JM, Hansen NI, Lavange L , et al; Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Respiratory disease trends in the Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study cohort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155 (1) 72-80
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Kaslow RA, Ostrow DG, Detels R, Phair JP, Polk BF, Rinaldo Jr CR. The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study: rationale, organization, and selected characteristics of the participants. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 126 (2) 310-318
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Gingo MR, Balasubramani GK, Kingsley L , et al. The impact of HAART on the respiratory complications of HIV infection: longitudinal trends in the MACS and WIHS cohorts. PLoS ONE 2013; 8 (3) e58812
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Grubb JR, Moorman AC, Baker RK, Masur H. The changing spectrum of pulmonary disease in patients with HIV infection on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2006; 20 (8) 1095-1107
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Kaplan JE, Hanson D, Dworkin MS , et al. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30 (Suppl. 01) S5-S14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella Jr FJ , et al; HOPS Investigators. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS 2010; 24 (10) 1549-1559
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Berry SA, Fleishman JA, Moore RD, Gebo KA ; HIV Research Network. Trends in reasons for hospitalization in a multisite United States cohort of persons living with HIV, 2001-2008. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2012; 59 (4) 368-375
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Voll-Aanerud M, Eagan TM, Plana E , et al. Respiratory symptoms in adults are related to impaired quality of life, regardless of asthma and COPD: results from the European community respiratory health survey. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2010; 8: 107
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Gingo MR, Balasubramani GK, Rice TB , et al. Pulmonary symptoms and diagnoses are associated with HIV in the MACS and WIHS cohorts. BMC Pulm Med 2014; 14: 75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 George MP, Kannass M, Huang L, Sciurba FC, Morris A. Respiratory symptoms and airway obstruction in HIV-infected subjects in the HAART era. PLoS ONE 2009; 4 (7) e6328
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Gingo MR, George MP, Kessinger CJ , et al. Pulmonary function abnormalities in HIV-infected patients during the current antiretroviral therapy era. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 182 (6) 790-796
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Crothers K, McGinnis K, Kleerup E , et al. HIV infection is associated with reduced pulmonary diffusing capacity. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013; 64 (3) 271-278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Morris A, Gingo MR, George MP , et al. Cardiopulmonary function in individuals with HIV infection in the antiretroviral therapy era. AIDS 2012; 26 (6) 731-740
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Hirschtick RE, Glassroth J, Jordan MC , et al; Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Bacterial pneumonia in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1995; 333 (13) 845-851
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Kohli R, Lo Y, Homel P , et al; HER Study Group. Bacterial pneumonia, HIV therapy, and disease progression among HIV-infected women in the HIV epidemiologic research (HER) study. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43 (1) 90-98
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Schneider E, Whitmore S, Glynn KM, Dominguez K, Mitsch A, McKenna MT ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Revised surveillance case definitions for HIV infection among adults, adolescents, and children aged <18 months and for HIV infection and AIDS among children aged 18 months to <13 years—United States, 2008. MMWR Recomm Rep 2008; 57 (RR-10): 1-12
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Sullivan JH, Moore RD, Keruly JC, Chaisson RE. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on the incidence of bacterial pneumonia in patients with advanced HIV infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162 (1) 64-67
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Afessa B, Green B. Bacterial pneumonia in hospitalized patients with HIV infection: the Pulmonary Complications, ICU Support, and Prognostic Factors of Hospitalized Patients with HIV (PIP) Study. Chest 2000; 117 (4) 1017-1022
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Levine SJ, White DA, Fels AO. The incidence and significance of Staphylococcus aureus in respiratory cultures from patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141 (1) 89-93
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Mundy LM, Auwaerter PG, Oldach D , et al. Community-acquired pneumonia: impact of immune status. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152 (4, Pt 1) 1309-1315
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Tarp B, Jensen JS, Ostergaard L, Andersen PL. Search for agents causing atypical pneumonia in HIV-positive patients by inhibitor-controlled PCR assays. Eur Respir J 1999; 13 (1) 175-179
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Heffernan RT, Barrett NL, Gallagher KM , et al. Declining incidence of invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae infections among persons with AIDS in an era of highly active antiretroviral therapy, 1995-2000. J Infect Dis 2005; 191 (12) 2038-2045
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. [cited September 2015]; Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adult_oi.pdf
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Dworkin MS, Ward JW, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Kaplan JE ; Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Project. Pneumococcal disease among human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons: incidence, risk factors, and impact of vaccination. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32 (5) 794-800
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Gebo KA, Moore RD, Keruly JC, Chaisson RE. Risk factors for pneumococcal disease in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis 1996; 173 (4) 857-862
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Guerrero M, Kruger S, Saitoh A , et al. Pneumonia in HIV-infected patients: a case-control survey of factors involved in risk and prevention. AIDS 1999; 13 (14) 1971-1975
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Breiman RF, Keller DW, Phelan MA , et al. Evaluation of effectiveness of the 23-valent pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine for HIV-infected patients. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160 (17) 2633-2638
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Hung CC, Chen MY, Hsieh SM, Hsiao CF, Sheng WH, Chang SC. Clinical experience of the 23-valent capsular polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccination in HIV-1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective observational study. Vaccine 2004; 22 (15-16) 2006-2012
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Grau I, Pallares R, Tubau F , et al; Spanish Pneumococcal Infection Study Network (G03/103). Epidemiologic changes in bacteremic pneumococcal disease in patients with human immunodeficiency virus in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165 (13) 1533-1540
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 French N, Nakiyingi J, Carpenter LM , et al. 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 355 (9221) 2106-2111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Watera C, Nakiyingi J, Miiro G , et al. 23-Valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-infected Ugandan adults: 6-year follow-up of a clinical trial cohort. AIDS 2004; 18 (8) 1210-1213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Leggat DJ, Iyer AS, Ohtola JA , et al. Response to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination in newly diagnosed HIV-positive individuals. J AIDS Clin Res 2015; 6 (2) 419
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 French N, Gordon SB, Mwalukomo T , et al. A trial of a 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in HIV-infected adults. N Engl J Med 2010; 362 (9) 812-822
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Anglaret X, Chêne G, Attia A , et al; Cotrimo-CI Study Group. Early chemoprophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999; 353 (9163) 1463-1468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Hardy WD, Feinberg J, Finkelstein DM , et al. A controlled trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or aerosolized pentamidine for secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 021. N Engl J Med 1992; 327 (26) 1842-1848
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Goulet J, Brown S , et al. Impact of pneumococcal vaccination on the incidence of pneumonia by HIV infection status among patients enrolled in the Veterans Aging Cohort 5-Site Study. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46 (7) 1093-1100
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Navin TR, Rimland D, Lennox JL , et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia among persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 2000; 181 (1) 158-164
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Crothers K, Griffith TA, McGinnis KA , et al. The impact of cigarette smoking on mortality, quality of life, and comorbid illness among HIV-positive veterans. J Gen Intern Med 2005; 20 (12) 1142-1145
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Justice AC, Lasky E, McGinnis KA , et al; VACS 3 Project Team. Medical disease and alcohol use among veterans with human immunodeficiency infection: a comparison of disease measurement strategies. Med Care 2006; 44 (8) (Suppl. 02) S52-S60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 De P, Farley A, Lindson N, Aveyard P. Systematic review and meta-analysis: influence of smoking cessation on incidence of pneumonia in HIV. BMC Med 2013; 11: 15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Gordin FM, Roediger MP, Girard PM , et al. Pneumonia in HIV-infected persons: increased risk with cigarette smoking and treatment interruption. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178 (6) 630-636
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Cordero E, Pachón J, Rivero A , et al. Community-acquired bacterial pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: validation of severity criteria. The Grupo Andaluz para el Estudio de las Enfermedades Infecciosas. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162 (6) 2063-2068
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Scott C, Kirking HL, Jeffries C, Price SF, Pratt R ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Tuberculosis trends—United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2015; 64 (10) 265-269
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Peto HM, Pratt RH, Harrington TA, LoBue PA, Armstrong LR. Epidemiology of extrapulmonary tuberculosis in the United States, 1993-2006. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49 (9) 1350-1357
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Albalak R, O'Brien RJ, Kammerer JS , et al. Trends in tuberculosis/human immunodeficiency virus comorbidity, United States, 1993-2004. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167 (22) 2443-2452
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Jones JL, Hanson DL, Dworkin MS, DeCock KM ; Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Group. HIV-associated tuberculosis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2000; 4 (11) 1026-1031
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 del Amo J, Moreno S, Bucher HC , et al; HIV-CAUSAL Collaboration. Impact of antiretroviral therapy on tuberculosis incidence among HIV-positive patients in high-income countries. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (9) 1364-1372
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Girardi E, Sabin CA, d'Arminio Monforte A , et al; Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Incidence of Tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy in Europe and North America. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41 (12) 1772-1782
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Trieu L, Li J, Hanna DB, Harris TG. Tuberculosis rates among HIV-infected persons in New York City, 2001-2005. Am J Public Health 2010; 100 (6) 1031-1034
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Rodwell TC, Barnes RF, Moore M , et al. HIV-tuberculosis coinfection in Southern California: evaluating disparities in disease burden. Am J Public Health 2010; 100 (Suppl. 01) S178-S185
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Suthar AB, Lawn SD, del Amo J , et al. Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of tuberculosis in adults with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2012; 9 (7) e1001270
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Sterling TR, Lau B, Zhang J , et al; North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD) of the International Epidemiologic Databases to Evaluate AIDS (IeDEA). Risk factors for tuberculosis after highly active antiretroviral therapy initiation in the United States and Canada: implications for tuberculosis screening. J Infect Dis 2011; 204 (6) 893-901
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Selwyn PA, Hartel D, Lewis VA , et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1989; 320 (9) 545-550
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Akolo C, Adetifa I, Shepperd S, Volmink J. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; (1) CD000171
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Sterling TR, Zhao Z, Khan A , et al; Tuberculosis Trials Consortium. Mortality in a large tuberculosis treatment trial: modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006; 10 (5) 542-549
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mortality among patients with tuberculosis and associations with HIV status --- United States, 1993-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2010; 59 (46) 1509-1513
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA , et al; ATS Mycobacterial Diseases Subcommittee; American Thoracic Society; Infectious Disease Society of America. An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 175 (4) 367-416
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Adjemian J, Olivier KN, Seitz AE, Holland SM, Prevots DR. Prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease in U.S. Medicare beneficiaries. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185 (8) 881-886
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Mirsaeidi M, Machado RF, Garcia JG, Schraufnagel DE. Nontuberculous mycobacterial disease mortality in the United States, 1999-2010: a population-based comparative study. PLoS ONE 2014; 9 (3) e91879
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Prevots DR, Shaw PA, Strickland D , et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease prevalence at four integrated health care delivery systems. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 182 (7) 970-976
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Kalayjian RC, Toossi Z, Tomashefski Jr JF , et al. Pulmonary disease due to infection by Mycobacterium avium complex in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20 (5) 1186-1194
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Boyle DP, Zembower TR, Reddy S, Qi C. Comparison of clinical features, virulence, and relapse among Mycobacterium avium complex species. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 191 (11) 1310-1317
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Campo RE, Campo CE. Mycobacterium kansasii disease in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24 (6) 1233-1238
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Bloch KC, Zwerling L, Pletcher MJ , et al. Incidence and clinical implications of isolation of Mycobacterium kansasii: results of a 5-year, population-based study. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129 (9) 698-704
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Naik E, LeBlanc S, Tang J, Jacobson LP, Kaslow RA. The complexity of HLA class II (DRB1, DQB1, DM) associations with disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection among HIV-1-seropositive whites. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003; 33 (2) 140-145
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Gebo KA, Fleishman JA, Reilly ED, Moore RD ; HIV Research Network. High rates of primary Mycobacterium avium complex and Pneumocystis jiroveci prophylaxis in the United States. Med Care 2005; 43 (9, Suppl): III23-III30
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Powell K, Davis JL, Morris AM, Chi A, Bensley MR, Huang L. Survival for patients With HIV admitted to the ICU continues to improve in the current era of combination antiretroviral therapy. Chest 2009; 135 (1) 11-17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Schwarcz L, Chen MJ, Vittinghoff E, Hsu L, Schwarcz S. Declining incidence of AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses: results from 16 years of population-based AIDS surveillance. AIDS 2013; 27 (4) 597-605
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Kelley CF, Checkley W, Mannino DM, Franco-Paredes C, Del Rio C, Holguin F. Trends in hospitalizations for AIDS-associated Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in the United States (1986 to 2005). Chest 2009; 136 (1) 190-197
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Stansell JD, Osmond DH, Charlebois E , et al; Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Predictors of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected persons. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155 (1) 60-66
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Phair J, Muñoz A, Detels R, Kaslow R, Rinaldo C, Saah A ; Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Group. The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med 1990; 322 (3) 161-165
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Kaplan JE, Hanson DL, Navin TR, Jones JL. Risk factors for primary Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents and adults in the United States: reassessment of indications for chemoprophylaxis. J Infect Dis 1998; 178 (4) 1126-1132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Furrer H, Egger M, Opravil M , et al. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected adults treated with combination antiretroviral therapy. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. N Engl J Med 1999; 340 (17) 1301-1306
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Lopez Bernaldo de Quiros JC, Miro JM, Peña JM , et al; Grupo de Estudio del SIDA 04/98. A randomized trial of the discontinuation of primary and secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia after highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV infection. Grupo de Estudio del SIDA 04/98. N Engl J Med 2001; 344 (3) 159-167
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Weverling GJ, Mocroft A, Ledergerber B , et al. Discontinuation of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia prophylaxis after start of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. EuroSIDA Study Group. Lancet 1999; 353 (9161) 1293-1298
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Radhi S, Alexander T, Ukwu M, Saleh S, Morris A. Outcome of HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia in hospitalized patients from 2000 through 2003. BMC Infect Dis 2008; 8: 118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Dworkin MS, Hanson DL, Navin TR. Survival of patients with AIDS, after diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, in the United States. J Infect Dis 2001; 183 (9) 1409-1412
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Walzer PD, Perl DP, Krogstad DJ, Rawson PG, Schultz MG. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the United States. Epidemiologic, diagnostic, and clinical features. Ann Intern Med 1974; 80 (1) 83-93
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 del Rio C, Barragan M, Franco-Paredes C. Pneumocystis pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2004; 351 (12) 1262-1263
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Sheth AN, Althoff KN, Brooks JT. Influenza susceptibility, severity, and shedding in HIV-infected adults: a review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52 (2) 219-227
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Durham MD, Buchacz K, Armon C, Patel P, Wood K, Brooks JT ; HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. Seasonal influenza vaccination rates in the HIV outpatient study-United States, 1999-2013. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60 (6) 976-977
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Lu PJ, Santibanez TA, Williams WW , et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Surveillance of influenza vaccination coverage—United States, 2007-08 through 2011-12 influenza seasons. MMWR Surveill Summ 2013; 62 (4) 1-28
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Fine AD, Bridges CB, De Guzman AM , et al. Influenza A among patients with human immunodeficiency virus: an outbreak of infection at a residential facility in New York City. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32 (12) 1784-1791
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Peters PJ, Skarbinski J, Louie JK , et al; New York City Department of Health Swine Flu Investigation Team. HIV-infected hospitalized patients with 2009 pandemic influenza A (pH1N1)—United States, spring and summer 2009. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52 (Suppl. 01) S183-S188
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices—United States, 2013-2014. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013; 62 (RR-07): 1-43
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Tasker SA, Treanor JJ, Paxton WB, Wallace MR. Efficacy of influenza vaccination in HIV-infected persons. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131 (6) 430-433
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Althoff KN, Anastos K, Nelson KE , et al. Predictors of reported influenza vaccination in HIV-infected women in the United States, 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 seasons. Prev Med 2010; 50 (5-6) 223-229
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Healthy People 2020 [Internet]. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion [cited October 2015]; Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/immunization-and-infectious-diseases/objectives?topicId=23
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Cohen C, Simonsen L, Sample J , et al. Influenza-related mortality among adults aged 25-54 years with AIDS in South Africa and the United States of America. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55 (7) 996-1003
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Lee EH, Wu C, Lee EU , et al. Fatalities associated with the 2009 H1N1 influenza A virus in New York city. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50 (11) 1498-1504
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Holding KJ, Dworkin MS, Wan PC , et al. Aspergillosis among people infected with human immunodeficiency virus: incidence and survival. Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Project. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31 (5) 1253-1257
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Lin SJ, Schranz J, Teutsch SM. Aspergillosis case-fatality rate: systematic review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32 (3) 358-366
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Tong KB, Lau CJ, Murtagh K, Layton AJ, Seifeldin R. The economic impact of aspergillosis: analysis of hospital expenditures across patient subgroups. Int J Infect Dis 2009; 13 (1) 24-36
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Saubolle MA, McKellar PP, Sussland D. Epidemiologic, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of coccidioidomycosis. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45 (1) 26-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Huang JY, Bristow B, Shafir S, Sorvillo F. Coccidioidomycosis-associated deaths, United States, 1990-2008. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18 (11) 1723-1728
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Masannat FY, Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in patients with HIV-1 infection in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50 (1) 1-7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Edwards LB, Acquaviva FA, Livesay VT, Cross FW, Palmer CE. An atlas of sensitivity to tuberculin, PPD-B, and histoplasmin in the United States. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99 (4, Suppl): 1-132
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Baddley JW, Sankara IR, Rodriquez JM, Pappas PG, Many Jr WJ. Histoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients in a southern regional medical center: poor prognosis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 62 (2) 151-156
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Myint T, Al-Hasan MN, Ribes JA, Murphy BS, Greenberg RN. Temporal trends, clinical characteristics, and outcomes of histoplasmosis in a tertiary care center in Kentucky, 2000 to 2009. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care 2014; 13 (2) 100-105
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Mirza SA, Phelan M, Rimland D , et al. The changing epidemiology of cryptococcosis: an update from population-based active surveillance in 2 large metropolitan areas, 1992-2000. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36 (6) 789-794
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 MacDougall L, Fyfe M, Romney M, Starr M, Galanis E. Risk factors for Cryptococcus gattii infection, British Columbia, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17 (2) 193-199
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Iverson SA, Chiller T, Beekmann S, Polgreen PM, Harris J. Recognition and diagnosis of Cryptococcus gattii infections in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18 (6) 1012-1015
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Chen SC, Meyer W, Sorrell TC. Cryptococcus gattii infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27 (4) 980-1024
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Kunadharaju R, Choe U, Harris JR, Lockhart SR, Greene JN. Cryptococcus gattii, Florida, USA, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 19 (3) 519-521
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Tseng HK, Liu CP, Ho MW , et al; Taiwan Infectious Diseases Study Network for Cryptococcosis. Microbiological, epidemiological, and clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with cryptococcosis in Taiwan, 1997-2010. PLoS ONE 2013; 8 (4) e61921
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Drummond MB, Kirk GD, Astemborski J , et al. Association between obstructive lung disease and markers of HIV infection in a high-risk cohort. Thorax 2012; 67 (4) 309-314
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Crothers K, Butt AA, Gibert CL, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Crystal S, Justice AC ; Veterans Aging Cohort 5 Project Team. Increased COPD among HIV-positive compared to HIV-negative veterans. Chest 2006; 130 (5) 1326-1333
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Blair JM, Fagan JL, Frazier EL , et al; National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC. Behavioral and clinical characteristics of persons receiving medical care for HIV infection - Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2009. MMWR Surveill Summ 2014; 63 (Suppl. 05) 1-22
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Ford ES, Croft JB, Mannino DM, Wheaton AG, Zhang X, Giles WH. COPD surveillance—United States, 1999-2011. Chest 2013; 144 (1) 284-305
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease among adults—United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012; 61 (46) 938-943
    Google Scholar
  • 122 Diaz PT, King MA, Pacht ER , et al. Increased susceptibility to pulmonary emphysema among HIV-seropositive smokers. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132 (5) 369-372
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Crothers K, Huang L, Goulet JL , et al. HIV infection and risk for incident pulmonary diseases in the combination antiretroviral therapy era. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183 (3) 388-395
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Hirani A, Cavallazzi R, Vasu T , et al. Prevalence of obstructive lung disease in HIV population: a cross sectional study. Respir Med 2011; 105 (11) 1655-1661
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 Mannino DM, Gagnon RC, Petty TL, Lydick E. Obstructive lung disease and low lung function in adults in the United States: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160 (11) 1683-1689
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 Fitzpatrick ME, Gingo MR, Kessinger C , et al. HIV infection is associated with diffusing capacity impairment in women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013; 64 (3) 284-288
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 Lambert AA, Kirk GD, Astemborski J, Mehta SH, Wise RA, Drummond MB. HIV infection is associated with increased risk for acute exacerbation of COPD. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015; 69 (1) 68-74
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Akgün KM, Gordon K, Pisani M , et al. Risk factors for hospitalization and medical intensive care unit (MICU) admission among HIV-infected Veterans. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013; 62 (1) 52-59
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Gingo MR, Wenzel SE, Steele C , et al. Asthma diagnosis and airway bronchodilator response in HIV-infected patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 129 (3) 708-714.e8
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevalence of risk behaviors for HIV infection among adults—United States, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001; 50 (14) 262-265
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Speich R, Jenni R, Opravil M, Pfab M, Russi EW. Primary pulmonary hypertension in HIV infection. Chest 1991; 100 (5) 1268-1271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 132 Sitbon O, Lascoux-Combe C, Delfraissy JF , et al. Prevalence of HIV-related pulmonary arterial hypertension in the current antiretroviral therapy era. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177 (1) 108-113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Mondy KE, Gottdiener J, Overton ET , et al; SUN Study Investigators. High prevalence of echocardiographic abnormalities among HIV-infected persons in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52 (3) 378-386
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Hsue PY, Deeks SG, Farah HH , et al. Role of HIV and human herpesvirus-8 infection in pulmonary arterial hypertension. AIDS 2008; 22 (7) 825-833
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Degano B, Guillaume M, Savale L , et al. HIV-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension: survival and prognostic factors in the modern therapeutic era. AIDS 2010; 24 (1) 67-75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 136 Kunisaki KM, Akgün KM, Fiellin DA , et al. Prevalence and correlates of obstructive sleep apnoea among patients with and without HIV infection. HIV Med 2015; 16 (2) 105-113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Patil SP, Brown TT, Jacobson LP , et al. Sleep disordered breathing, fatigue, and sleepiness in HIV-infected and -uninfected men. PLoS ONE 2014; 9 (7) e99258
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Engels EA, Biggar RJ, Hall HI , et al. Cancer risk in people infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Int J Cancer 2008; 123 (1) 187-194
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Robbins HA, Pfeiffer RM, Shiels MS, Li J, Hall HI, Engels EA. Excess cancers among HIV-infected people in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 2015; 107 (4) 107
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Niaura R, Shadel WG, Morrow K, Tashima K, Flanigan T, Abrams DB. Human immunodeficiency virus infection, AIDS, and smoking cessation: the time is now. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31 (3) 808-812
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Simard EP, Engels EA. Cancer as a cause of death among people with AIDS in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51 (8) 957-962
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Hessol NA, Martínez-Maza O, Levine AM , et al. Lung cancer incidence and survival among HIV-infected and uninfected women and men. AIDS 2015; 29 (10) 1183-1193
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Engels EA. Age at cancer diagnosis among persons with AIDS in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2010; 153 (7) 452-460
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 144 Kirk GD, Merlo C, O' Driscoll P , et al. HIV infection is associated with an increased risk for lung cancer, independent of smoking. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45 (1) 103-110
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Sigel K, Wisnivesky J, Gordon K , et al. HIV as an independent risk factor for incident lung cancer. AIDS 2012; 26 (8) 1017-1025
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Silverberg MJ, Chao C, Leyden WA , et al. HIV infection and the risk of cancers with and without a known infectious cause. AIDS 2009; 23 (17) 2337-2345
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 147 Shiels MS, Cole SR, Mehta SH, Kirk GD. Lung cancer incidence and mortality among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected injection drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 55 (4) 510-515
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 148 Seaberg EC, Wiley D, Martínez-Maza O , et al; Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Cancer incidence in the multicenter AIDS Cohort Study before and during the HAART era: 1984 to 2007. Cancer 2010; 116 (23) 5507-5516
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 149 Hessol NA, Seaberg EC, Preston-Martin S , et al; WIHS Collaborative Study Group. Cancer risk among participants in the women's interagency HIV study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004; 36 (4) 978-985
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 150 Shiels MS, Cole SR, Kirk GD, Poole C. A meta-analysis of the incidence of non-AIDS cancers in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 52 (5) 611-622
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 151 Chaturvedi AK, Pfeiffer RM, Chang L, Goedert JJ, Biggar RJ, Engels EA. Elevated risk of lung cancer among people with AIDS. AIDS 2007; 21 (2) 207-213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 152 Shebl FM, Engels EA, Goedert JJ, Chaturvedi AK. Pulmonary infections and risk of lung cancer among persons with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 55 (3) 375-379
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 153 Sigel K, Crothers K, Dubrow R , et al. Prognosis in HIV-infected patients with non-small cell lung cancer. Br J Cancer 2013; 109 (7) 1974-1980
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 154 Coghill AE, Shiels MS, Suneja G, Engels EA. Elevated cancer-specific mortality among HIV-infected patients in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2015; 33 (21) 2376-2383
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 155 Brock MV, Hooker CM, Engels EA , et al. Delayed diagnosis and elevated mortality in an urban population with HIV and lung cancer: implications for patient care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006; 43 (1) 47-55
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 156 Marcus JL, Chao C, Leyden WA , et al. Survival among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals with common non-AIDS-defining cancers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2015; 24 (8) 1167-1173
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 157 Suneja G, Shiels MS, Angulo R , et al. Cancer treatment disparities in HIV-infected individuals in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2014; 32 (22) 2344-2350
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 158 Shiels MS, Copeland G, Goodman MT , et al. Cancer stage at diagnosis in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus and transplant recipients. Cancer 2015; 121 (12) 2063-2071
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 159 Engels EA, Pfeiffer RM, Goedert JJ , et al; HIV/AIDS Cancer Match Study. Trends in cancer risk among people with AIDS in the United States 1980-2002. AIDS 2006; 20 (12) 1645-1654
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 160 Biggar RJ, Chaturvedi AK, Goedert JJ, Engels EA ; HIV/AIDS Cancer Match Study. AIDS-related cancer and severity of immunosuppression in persons with AIDS. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99 (12) 962-972
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 161 Robbins HA, Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Engels EA. Epidemiologic contributions to recent cancer trends among HIV-infected people in the United States. AIDS 2014; 28 (6) 881-890
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 162 de Martel C, Shiels MS, Franceschi S , et al. Cancers attributable to infections among adults with HIV in the United States. AIDS 2015; 29 (16) 2173-2181
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 163 Engels EA, Atkinson JO, Graubard BI , et al. Risk factors for human herpesvirus 8 infection among adults in the United States and evidence for sexual transmission. J Infect Dis 2007; 196 (2) 199-207
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 164 Beral V, Peterman TA, Berkelman RL, Jaffe HW. Kaposi's sarcoma among persons with AIDS: a sexually transmitted infection?. Lancet 1990; 335 (8682) 123-128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 165 Gogineni E, Marshall V, Miley W , et al. Quantitative determinations of anti-Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus antibody levels in men who have sex with men. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 76 (1) 56-60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 166 Lodi S, Guiguet M, Costagliola D, Fisher M, de Luca A, Porter K ; CASCADE Collaboration. Kaposi sarcoma incidence and survival among HIV-infected homosexual men after HIV seroconversion. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010; 102 (11) 784-792
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 167 Krown SE, Lee JY, Dittmer DP ; AIDS Malignancy Consortium. More on HIV-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. N Engl J Med 2008; 358 (5) 535-536 , author reply 536
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 168 Maurer T, Ponte M, Leslie K. HIV-associated Kaposi's sarcoma with a high CD4 count and a low viral load. N Engl J Med 2007; 357 (13) 1352-1353
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 169 Armstrong AW, Lam KH, Chase EP. Epidemiology of classic and AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma in the USA: incidence, survival, and geographical distribution from 1975 to 2005. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 141 (1) 200-206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 170 Djawe K, Buchacz K, Hsu L , et al. Mortality risk after AIDS-defining opportunistic illness among HIV-infected persons-San Francisco, 1981-2012. J Infect Dis 2015; 212 (9) 1366-1375
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 171 Akgün KM, Pisani M, Crothers K. The changing epidemiology of HIV-infected patients in the intensive care unit. J Intensive Care Med 2011; 26 (3) 151-164
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 172 Morris A, Creasman J, Turner J, Luce JM, Wachter RM, Huang L. Intensive care of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166 (3) 262-267
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 173 Feldman C, Anderson R. Cigarette smoking and mechanisms of susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract and other organ systems. J Infect 2013; 67 (3) 169-184
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 174 Miguez-Burbano MJ, Ashkin D, Rodriguez A , et al. Increased risk of Pneumocystis carinii and community-acquired pneumonia with tobacco use in HIV disease. Int J Infect Dis 2005; 9 (4) 208-217
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 175 Valiathan R, Miguez MJ, Patel B, Arheart KL, Asthana D. Tobacco smoking increases immune activation and impairs T-cell function in HIV infected patients on antiretrovirals: a cross-sectional pilot study. PLoS ONE 2014; 9 (5) e97698
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 176 Hunt PW. HIV and inflammation: mechanisms and consequences. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2012; 9 (2) 139-147
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 177 Miller CJ, Baker JV, Bormann AM , et al; INSIGHT SMART Study Group; ESPRIT Study Group. Adjudicated morbidity and mortality outcomes by age among individuals with HIV infection on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. PLoS ONE 2014; 9 (4) e95061
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 178 Helleberg M, Afzal S, Kronborg G , et al. Mortality attributable to smoking among HIV-1-infected individuals: a nationwide, population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56 (5) 727-734
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 179 Helleberg M, May MT, Ingle SM , et al. Smoking and life expectancy among HIV-infected individuals on antiretroviral therapy in Europe and North America. AIDS 2015; 29 (2) 221-229
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 180 Bénard A, Mercié P, Alioum A , et al; Groupe d'Epidémiologie Clinique du Sida en Aquitaine. Bacterial pneumonia among HIV-infected patients: decreased risk after tobacco smoking cessation. ANRS CO3 Aquitaine Cohort, 2000-2007. PLoS ONE 2010; 5 (1) e8896
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 181 Petoumenos K, Worm S, Reiss P , et al; D:A:D Study Group. Rates of cardiovascular disease following smoking cessation in patients with HIV infection: results from the D:A:D study(*). HIV Med 2011; 12 (7) 412-421
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 182 Vidrine DJ, Arduino RC, Gritz ER. The effects of smoking abstinence on symptom burden and quality of life among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2007; 21 (9) 659-666
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 183 Benard A, Bonnet F, Tessier JF , et al; Groupe d'Epidemiologie Clinique du SIDA en Aquitaine (GECSA). Tobacco addiction and HIV infection: toward the implementation of cessation programs. ANRS CO3 Aquitaine Cohort. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2007; 21 (7) 458-468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 184 Burkhalter JE, Springer CM, Chhabra R, Ostroff JS, Rapkin BD. Tobacco use and readiness to quit smoking in low-income HIV-infected persons. Nicotine Tob Res 2005; 7 (4) 511-522
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 185 The Mountain Plains Education and Training Center [Internet]. 2014 [cited September 2015]; Available at: http://www.mpaetc.org/Products/HIV-Tobacco-Use
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 186 Smoking and HIV [Internet]. 2015 [cited September 2015]; Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/smoking-and-hiv.html
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 187 Veterans Administration Health Care. HIV Provider Smoking Cessation Handbook: A Resource for Providers [Internet]. 2012 [cited September 2015]; Available at: http://www. va.gov/vhapublications/ViewPublication.asp?pub_ID=2826
    PubMedGoogle Scholar