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Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2026; 47(01): 032-046
DOI: 10.1055/a-2684-3689
Review Article

The Glucocorticoid System: A Multifaceted Regulator of Mitochondrial Function, Endothelial Homeostasis, and Intestinal Barrier Integrity

Authors

  • Gianfranco Umberto Meduri

    1   Department of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States

  • Anna-Maria G. Psarra

    2   Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Thessaly, Biopolis, Larissa, Greece
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Abstract

Critical illness initiates a cascade of systemic disturbances—including energy deficits, oxidative stress, endothelial injury, and intestinal barrier dysfunction. Mitochondria, the vascular endothelium, and the intestinal barrier are three critical interfaces that facilitate the restoration of homeostasis. These processes are regulated by the glucocorticoid (GC) signaling system, specifically through the glucocorticoid receptor α (GRα), which coordinates cellular metabolism, immune modulation, and vascular integrity. This integrated signaling network offers therapeutic targets to prevent or reduce organ dysfunction and damage. Mitochondria function as metabolic hubs, transforming substrates mobilized by GC–GRα into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), while also regulating calcium homeostasis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling, and apoptosis. However, excessive ROS generation during critical illness can disrupt cellular energetics, leading to systemic inflammation and critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI). GC–GRα signaling helps mitigate mitochondrial dysfunction by promoting mitochondrial biogenesis, enhancing antioxidant defenses, and maintaining redox balance, which is essential for metabolic recovery and survival. The vascular endothelium and the intestinal barrier are the two most extensive and vulnerable surfaces affected during critical illness, and their preservation or restoration is vital for recovery. These active interfaces are essential for maintaining vascular integrity, immune balance, and metabolic stability—functions that are often severely impaired in critical illness. The vascular endothelium, which lines the entire circulatory system, plays a crucial role in regulating vascular tone, permeability, and immune cell recruitment through mediators like nitric oxide and prostacyclin. In conditions such as sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), inflammatory injury damages the endothelial glycocalyx and tight junctions, leading to microvascular leakage and widespread inflammation. Activation of GC–GRα pathways helps restore endothelial integrity by inhibiting nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), lowering proinflammatory cytokine production, increasing tight junction proteins, and boosting endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity—mechanisms that collectively prevent thrombosis and edema. The intestinal barrier, maintained by tight junctions and gut microbiota, is essential for nutrient absorption and mucosal immune defense. During critical illness, gut dysbiosis—marked by a depletion of beneficial commensals and overgrowth of pathogenic species—compromises barrier integrity, increases intestinal permeability, and promotes bacterial translocation. GC–GRα signaling plays a key role in preserving the intestinal barrier by regulating tight junctions, lowering permeability, and affecting microbiota composition. Combining GC therapy with microbiota-focused interventions offers hope for reducing inflammation, supporting recovery, and improving survival in critically ill patients.

Keywords

critical illness - glucocorticoid receptor-α - endothelium - intestinal barrier - mitochondria - oxidative stress

Contributors' Statement

G.U.M. and A-M.G.P. conceived and equally contributed to the manuscript writing.


Note

In addition to the previously used sources,[196] [197] [198] we searched Google Scholar and Consensus for literature search, and manual searching of articles, including reference lists of cited publications, was also performed to avoid omissions. The search was completed in April 2025.


Supplementary Material



Publication History

Received: 30 April 2025

Accepted: 14 August 2025

Article published online:
17 September 2025

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