Neuromyelitis Optica

Bruce A. C. Cree; Douglas S. Goodin; Stephen L. Hauser

doi:10.1055/s-2002-36534

Seminars in Neurology, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Semin Neurol 2002; 22(2): 105-122
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-36534

Neuromyelitis Optica

Bruce A.C. Cree, Douglas S. Goodin, Stephen L. Hauser

Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California

Abstract

ABSTRACT

Whether neuromyelitis optica (NMO), the co-occurrence of myelitis and optic neuritis, is a variant of multiple sclerosis (MS) or a unique disease is controversial. Distinct neuropathological features and a fulminant clinical course argue in favor of NMO as a distinct disease. However, the combination of neurological impairments of myelitis and optic neuritis occurs in patients with several inflammatory disorders, including multiple sclerosis and collagen vascular diseases. NMO is also associated with certain infectious diseases. The fact that the NMO phenotype occurs in a variety of disease states suggests that NMO does not represent a specific clinical entity. To better understand NMO and its associations with recognized diseases, a systematic review of the literature using MEDLINE was conducted. The history of NMO, its nosology, associations with other diseases, and current concepts of its pathogenesis and treatment is reviewed in this article.

KEYWORDS

Neuromyelitis optica - optic neuritis - myelitis - multiple sclerosis - Devic's disease

Volltext

Referenzen

REFERENCES

1 Allbutt T C. On the ophthalmoscopic signs of spinal disease. Lancet . 1870; 1 76-68
2 Erb W. Über das Zusammenkommen von Neuritis optica und Myelitis subacute. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1879-. 1880; 1 146-157
3 Steffan P. Beitrag zur Lehre des Zusammenhanges der Erkrankungen der Sehnerven mit denen des Rückenmarkes. Opthalmol Gesellschaft (Heidelberg) . 1879; 12 90
4 Seguin E C. On the coincidence of optic neuritis and subacute transverse myelitis. J Nerv Ment Dis . 1880; 7 177-188
5 Noyes H D. Acute myelitis mit doppelseitiger Neuritis optica. Arch F Augenheilk. 1881; 331
6 Dreschfeld J. Acute myelitis associated with optic neuritis. Lancet . 1882; 1 8-53
7 Chisolm J J. An obscure case in nerve pathology accompanying optic neuritis. Arch Ophthalmol . 1882; 11 239
8 Rumpf T. Zur Wirkung des faradischen Pinsels bei einem Fall von Neuritis optica und Myelitis transversa. Deutsch Med Wochenschr . 1882; 7 442
9 Achard C, Guinon L. Sur un cas de myélite aiguë diffuse avec double névrite optique. Arch Med Exp . 1889; 1 696
10 Gault F. De la neuromyélite optique aiguë [doctoral thesis]. Lyons, France: 1894
11 Devic E. Myélite subaiguë compliquée de névrite optique. Bull Med (Paris) . 1894; 8 1033-1034
12 Devic E. Myelite aigue dorse-lombaire avec névrite optique, autopsie. Congrès français de méd. Première Session (Lyon) . 1895; 1 434-439
13 Goulden C. Optic neuritis and myelitis. Opthalmol Rev . 1914; 34 193-209
14 Beck G M. A case of diffuse myelitis associated with optic neuritis. Brain . 1927; 50 687-703
15 Stansbury F C. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's disease): presentation of five cases with pathologic study, and review of the literature. Arch Ophthalmol . 1949; 42 292-501
16 Peters G. Neuromyelitis optica. In: Lubarsche O, Henke F, Rossle R, eds. Handbuch der speziellen pathologischen Anatomie und Histologie, Bd XIII. IIA: Erkrankungen des zentralen Nerven Systems. Berlin: Springer 1958: 630-644
17 Ferraro A. Primary demyelinating processes of the central nervous system: an attempt at unification and classification. Arch Neurol Psychiat (Chicago) . 1937; 37 1100-1160
18 Putnam T J, Forster F M. Neuromyelitis optica: its relation to multiple sclerosis. Trans Am Neurol Assoc . 1942; 68 20-25
19 Dreschfeld J. Acute disseminated myelitis. Br Med J. 1894; 1174-1177
20 Hassin G B. Neuroptica myelitis versus multiple sclerosis: a pathologic study [abstract]. Arch Neurol Psychiat (Chicago) . 1937; 37 1083-1099
21 Lowenberg K, DeJong R N, Foster D B. Neuromyelitis optica: its relations to progressive necrosis of the spinal cord and acute multiple sclerosis [abstract]. Trans Am Neurol Assoc . 1947; 67 50-66
22 Walsh F B. Neuromyelitis optica: anatomical-pathological study of one case; clinical studies of three additional cases [abstract]. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp . 1935; 56 183-210
23 Miller H G, Evans M J. Prognosis in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: with a note on neuromyelitis optica [abstract]. Q J Med . 1953; 22 347-379
24 Shibasaki H, McDonald W I, Kuroiwa Y. Racial modification of clinical picture of multiple sclerosis: comparison between British and Japanese patients. J Neurol Sci . 1981; 49 253-271
25 Pálffy G. Multiple sclerosis in Hungary, including the Gypsy. In: Kuroiwa Y, Kurland LT, eds. Multiple Sclerosis, East and West Fukuoka: Kyushu University Press 1982: 149-158
26 O'Riordan J I, Gallagher H L, Thompson A J. Clinical, CSF, and MRI findings in Devic's neuromyelitis optica. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1996; 60 382-387
27 Mandler R N, Davis L E, Jeffery D R, Kornfeld M. Devic's neuromyelitis optica: a clinicopathological study of 8 patients. Ann Neurol . 1993; 34 162-168
28 Filippi M, Rocca M A, Moiola L. MRI and magnetization transfer imaging changes in the brain and cervical cord of patients with Devic's neuromyelitis optica. Neurology . 1999; 53 1705-1710
29 Wingerchuk D M, Hogancamp W F, O'Brien P C, Weinshenker B G. The clinical course of neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome). Neurology . 1999; 53 1107-1114
30 Cabre P, Heinzlef O, Merle H. MS and neuromyelitis optica in Martinique (French West Indies). Neurology . 2001; 56 507-514
31 de Seze J, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D. Devic's neuromyelitis optica: clinical, laboratory, MRI and outcome profile. J Neurol Sci . 2002; 197 57-61
32 Jeffery A R, Buncic J R. Pediatric Devic's neuromyelitis optica. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus . 1996; 33 223-229
33 Filley C M, Sternberg P E, Norenberg M D. Neuromyelitis optica in the elderly. Arch Neurol . 1984; 41 670-672
34 Ghezzi M, Giansanti M, Malentacchi G M, Barontini F. Neuromyelitis optica in the old age: a clinico-pathological contribution. Ital J Neurol Sci . 1987; 8 613-616
35 Barbieri F, Buscaino G A. Neuromyelitis optica in the elderly. Acta Neurol (Napoli) . 1989; 11 247-251
36 Staugaitis S M, Roberts J K, Sacco R L, Miller J R, Dwork A J. Devic type multiple sclerosis in an 81 year old woman. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1998; 64 417-418
37 Cloys D E, Netzky M G. Neuromyelitis optica. In: Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, eds. Handbook of Clinical Neurology Vol. 9: Multiple Sclerosis and Other Demyelinating Diseases. Amsterdam: North-Holland 1970: 426-436
38 McAlpine D. Familial neuromyelitis optica: its occurence in identical twins. Brain . 1938; 61 430-448
39 Ch'ien L T, Medeiros M O, Belluomini J J, Lemmi H, Whitaker J N. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome) in two sisters. Clin Electroencephalogr . 1982; 13 36-39
40 Yamakawa K, Kuroda H, Fujihara K. Familial neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome) with late onset in Japan. Neurology . 2000; 55 318-320
41 Kalra A, Kalra K, Agarwal M C, Mittal R. Neuromyelitis optica. Indian Pediatr . 1986; 23 228-229
42 Breukelman A J, Polman C H, de Slegte G R, Koetsier J C. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome): not always multiple sclerosis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg . 1988; 90 357-360
43 Parkin P J, Hierons R, McDonald W I. Bilateral optic neuritis: a long-term follow-up. Brain . 1984; 107 951-964
44 Balser B H. Neuromyelitis optica. Brain . 1936; 59 353-365
45 Field H B. A case of neuomyelitis optica. Ill Med J . 1961; 119 362-367
46 Kohut H, Richter R B. Neuro-optic myelitis: a clinicopathological study of two related cases [abstract]. J Nerv Ment Dis . 1945; 101 99-114
47 Kuroiwa Y, Shibasaki H. Painful tonic seizure in multiple sclerosis treatment with diphenylhydantoin and carbamazepine. Folia Psychiatr Neurol Jpn . 1968; 22 107-119
48 Shibasaki H, Kuroiwa Y. Painful tonic seizure in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol . 1974; 30 47-51
49 Popow N A. Neuromyelitis optica: its relation to multiple sclerosis. Dtsch Z Nervenheilk . 1935; 135 142-147
50 Keefe R J. Neuromyelitis optica with increased intracranial pressure. Arch Ophthal . 1957; 57 110-111
51 Tashiro K, Ito K, Maruo Y. MR imaging of spinal cord in Devic disease. J Comput Assist Tomogr . 1987; 11 516-517
52 Fazekas F, Offenbacher H, Schmidt R, Strasser-Fuchs S. MRI of neuromyelitis optica: evidence for a distinct entity. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1994; 57 1140-1142
53 Roberson F C, Ghatak N R, Young H F. Myelopathy presenting as an intrinsic spinal cord tumor. Surg Neurol . 1978; 9 317-321
54 Barkhof F, Scheltens P, Valk J, Waalewijn C, Uitdehaag B M, Polman C H. Serial quantitative MR assessment of optic neuritis in a case of neuromyelitis optica, using Gadolinium-''enhanced'' STIR imaging. Neuroradiology . 1991; 33 70-71
55 Okinaka S, McAlpine D, Miyagawa K. Multiple sclerosis in northern and southern Japan. World Neurol . 1960; 1 22-42
56 Okinaka S, Tsubaki T, Kuroiwa Y, Toyokura Y, Imamura Y, Yoshikawa M. Multiple sclerosis and allied diseases in Japan. Neurology . 1958; 8 756-763
57 Kuroiwa Y. Multiple sclerosis and allied demyelinating encephalomyelitis in Japan. In: Bammer HG, ed. Zunkuft der Neurologie Stuttgart: Thieme 1967: 70-84
58 Kuroiwa Y, Shibasaki H. Clinical studies of multiple sclerosis in Japan: I. A current appraisal of 83 cases. Neurology . 1973; 23 609-617
59 Shibasaki H, Kuroda Y, Kuroiwa Y. Clinical studies of multiple sclerosis in Japan: classical multiple sclerosis and Devic's disease. J Neurol Sci . 1974; 23 215-222
60 Schumacher G A, Beebe G, Kibler R F. Problems of experimental trials of therapy in multiple sclerosis: report by the panel on the evaluation of experimental trials of therapy in multiple sclerosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1965; 122 552-568
61 Kuroiwa Y, Igata A, Itahara K, Koshijima S, Tsubaki T. Nationwide survey of multiple sclerosis in Japan: clinical analysis of 1,084 cases. Neurology . 1975; 25 845-851
62 Shibasaki H, Kuroiwa Y. Statistical analysis of multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica based on autopsied cases in Jan. Folia Psychiatr Neurol Jpn . 1969; 23 1-10
63 Barcellos L F, Oksenberg J R, Green A J. Genetic basis for clinical expression in multiple sclerosis. Brain . 2002; 125 150-158
64 Kuroiwa Y, Hung T P, Landsborough D, Park C S, Singhal B S. Multiple sclerosis in Asia. Neurology . 1977; 27 188-192
65 Tan C T. Multiple sclerosis in Malaysia. Arch Neurol . 1988; 45 624-627
66 Mathew N T, Mathai K V, Abraham J, Taori G M. Incidence and pattern of demyelinating disease in India. J Neurol Sci . 1971; 13 27-38
67 Singhal B S, Wadia N H. Profile of multiple sclerosis in the Bombay region: on the basis of critical clinical appraisal. J Neurol Sci . 1975; 26 259-270
68 Nair K R, Sahasranam K V. Multiple sclerosis in Malabar. J Assoc Physicians India . 1978; 26 899-903
69 Chopra J S, Radhakrishnan K, Sawhney B B, Pal S R, Banerjee A K. Multiple sclerosis in north-west India. Acta Neurol Scand . 1980; 62 312-321
70 Singhal B S. Multiple sclerosis: Indian experience. Ann Acad Med Singapore . 1985; 14 32-36
71 Jain S, Maheshwari M C. Multiple sclerosis: Indian experience in the last thirty years. Neuroepidemiology . 1985; 4 96-107
72 Kira J, Kanai T, Nishimura Y. Western versus Asian types of multiple sclerosis: immunogenetically and clinically distinct disorders. Ann Neurol . 1996; 40 569-574
73 Olerup O, Hillert J. HLA class II-associated genetic susceptibility in multiple sclerosis: a critical evaluation. Tissue Antigens . 1991; 38 1-15
74 Ito H, Yamasaki K, Kawano Y. HLA-DP-associated susceptibility to the optico-spinal form of multiple sclerosis in the Japanese. Tissue Antigens . 1998; 52 179-182
75 Fukazawa T, Yamasaki K, Ito H. Both the HLA-DPB1 and -DRB1 alleles correlate with risk for multiple sclerosis in Japanese: clinical phenotypes and gender as important factors. Tissue Antigens . 2000; 55 199-205
76 Yamasaki K, Horiuchi I, Minohara M. HLA-DPB1*0501-associated opticospinal multiple sclerosis: clinical, neuroimaging and immunogenetic studies. Brain . 1999; 122 1689-1696
77 Sotgiu S, Pugliatti M, Solinas G, Castiglia P, Sanna A, Rosati G. Immunogenetic heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis in Sardinia. Neurol Sci . 2001; 22 167-170
78 Nakashima I, Fujihara K, Takase S, Itoyama Y. Decrease in multiple sclerosis with acute transverse myelitis in Japan. Tohoku J Exp Med . 1999; 188 89-94
79 Osuntokun B O. The pattern of neurological illness in tropical Africa: experience at Ibadan, Nigeria. J Neurol Sci . 1971; 12 417-442
80 Modi G, Mochan A, Modi M, Saffer D. Demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system occurring in black South Africans. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 2001; 70 500-505
81 Lana-Peixoto M A, Lana-Peixoto M I. Is multiple sclerosis in Brazil and Asia alike?. Arq Neuropsiquiatr . 1992; 50 419-425
82 Mirsattari S M, Johnston J B, McKenna R. Aboriginals with multiple sclerosis: HLA types and predominance of neuromyelitis optica. Neurology . 2001; 56 317-323
83 Vernant J C, Cabre P, Smadja D. Recurrent optic neuromyelitis with endocrinopathies: a new syndrome. Neurology . 1997; 48 58-64
84 Yamasaki K, Horiuchi I, Minohara M. Hyperprolactinemia in optico-spinal multiple sclerosis. Intern Med . 2000; 39 296-299
85 Van de Kar D L, Blair M L. Forebrain pathways mediating stress-induced hormone secretion. Front Neuroendocrinol . 1999; 20 1-48
86 April R S, Vansonnenberg E. A case of neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome) in systemic lupus erythematosus: clinicopathologic report and review of the literature. Neurology . 1976; 26 1066-1070
87 Bonnet F, Mercie P, Morlat P. Devic's neuromyelitis optica during pregnancy in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus . 1999; 8 244-247
88 Contamin F, Singer B, Mignot B. [A case of disseminated lupus erythematosus with involvement of the spinal cord and both optic nerves]. Ann Med Interne (Paris) . 1978; 129 463-439
89 Kinney E L, Berdoff R L, Rao N S, Fox L M. Devic's syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report with necropsy. Arch Neurol . 1979; 36 643-644
90 Oppenheimer S, Hoffbrand B I. Optic neuritis and myelopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Can J Neurol Sci . 1986; 13 129-132
91 Tola M R, Granieri E, Caniatti L. Systemic lupus erythematosus presenting with neurological disorders. J Neurol . 1992; 239 61-64
92 Cordeiro M F, Lloyd M E, Spalton D J, Hughes G R. Ischaemic optic neuropathy, transverse myelitis, and epilepsy in an anti-phospholipid positive patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1994; 57 1142-1143
93 Giorgi D, Balacco Gabrieli C, Bonomo L. The association of optic neuropathy with transverse myelitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxf) . 1999; 38 191-192
94 Gibbs A N, Moroney J, Foley-Nolan D, O'Connell P G. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome) in systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report. Rheumatology (Oxf) . 2002; 41 470-471
95 Mochizuki A, Hayashi A, Hisahara S, Shoji S. Steroid-responsive Devic's variant in Sjogren's syndrome. Neurology . 2000; 54 1391-1392
96 Moll J W, Markusse H M, Pijnenburg J J, Vecht C J, Henzen-Logmans S C. Antineuronal antibodies in patients with neurologic complications of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Neurology . 1993; 43 2574-2581
97 Manley G, Wong E, Dalmau J, Elkon K, Posner J, Furneaux H. Sera from some patients with antibody-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy recognize the Ro-52K antigen. J Neurooncol . 1994; 19 105-112
98 Vitali C, Bombardieri S, Moutsopoulos H M. Assessment of the European classification criteria for Sjögren's syndrome in a series of clinically defined cases: results of a prospective multicentre study. The European Study Group on Diagnostic Criteria for Sjögren's Syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis . 1996; 55 116-121
99 Harada T, Ohashi T, Harada C. A case of bilateral optic neuropathy and recurrent transverse myelopathy associated with perinuclear anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (p-ANCA). J Neuroophthalmol . 1997; 17 254-256
100 Fukazawa T, Hamada T, Kikuchi S, Sasaki H, Tashiro K, Maguchi S. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies and the optic-spinal form of multiple sclerosis in Japan. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1996; 61 203-204
101 Karussis D, Leker R R, Ashkenazi A, Abramsky O. A subgroup of multiple sclerosis patients with anticardiolipin antibodies and unusual clinical manifestations: do they represent a new nosological entity?. Ann Neurol . 1998; 44 629-634
102 Fukazawa T, Moriwaka F, Mukai M, Hamada T, Koike T, Tashiro K. Anticardiolipin antibodies in Japanese patients with multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand . 1993; 88 184-189
103 Weiss T D, Nelson J S, Woolsey R M, Zuckner J, Baldassare A R. Transverse myelitis in mixed connective tissue disease. Arthritis Rheum . 1978; 21 982-986
104 Pedersen C, Bonen H, Boesen F. Transverse myelitis in mixed connective tissue disease. Clin Rheumatol . 1987; 6 290-292
105 Mok C C, Lau C S. Transverse myelopathy complicating mixed connective tissue disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg . 1995; 97 259-260
106 Flechtner K M, Baum K. Mixed connective tissue disease: recurrent episodes of optic neuropathy and transverse myelopathy: successful treatment with plasmapheresis. J Neurol Sci . 1994; 126 146-148
107 Williamson P M. Neuromyelitis optica following infectious mononucleosis. Proc Aust Assoc Neurol . 1975; 12 153-155
108 Doutlik S, Sblova O, Kryl R, Novak M. [Neuromyelitis optica as a parainfectious complication of varicella]. Cesk Neurol Neurochir . 1975; 38 238-242
109 Chusid M J, Williamson S J, Murphy J V, Ramey L S. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic disease) following varicella infection. J Pediatr . 1979; 95 737-738
110 al-Deeb S M, Yaqub B A, Khoja W O. Devic's neuromyelitis optica and varicella. J Neurol . 1993; 240 450-451
111 Ahasan H A, Rafiqueuddin A K, Chowdhury M A, Azhar M A, Kabir F. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's disease) following chicken pox. Trop Doct . 1994; 24 75-76
112 Blanche P, Diaz E, Gombert B, Sicard D, Rivoal O, Brezin A. Devic's neuromyelitis optica and HIV-1 infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 2000; 68 795-796
113 Barbizet J, Degos J D, Meyrignac C. [Acute neuromyelitis optica and acute pulmonary tuberculosis (author's trans.)]. Rev Neurol (Paris) . 1980; 136 303-309
114 Hughes R A, Mair W G. Acute necrotic myelopathy with pulmonary tuberculosis. Brain . 1977; 100 223-238
115 Silber M H, Willcox P A, Bowen R M, Unger A. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome) and pulmonary tuberculosis. Neurology . 1990; 40 934-938
116 Tsubaki T, Toyokura Y, Tsukagoshi H. Subacute myelo-opticoneuropathy following abdominal symptoms: a clinical and pathological study. Jpn J Med . 1965; 4 181-184
117 Tsubaki T, Honma Y, Hoshi M. Neurological syndrome associated with clioquinol. Lancet . 1971; 1 696-697
118 Tateishi J, Ikeda H, Saito A, Kuroda S, Otsuki S. Myeloneuropathy in dogs induced by iodoxyquinoline. Neurology . 1972; 22 702-709
119 Tateishi J, Kuroda S, Saito A, Otsuki S. Experimental myelo-optic neuropathy induced by clioquinol. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) . 1973; 24 304-320
120 Donati E, Bargnani C, Besana R, Locatelli P, Faggi L, De Marinis S. Subacute myelo-optic neuropathy (SMON) induced by antituberculous treatment in uraemia. Funct Neurol . 1990; 5 151-154
121 Aimoto Y, Ito K, Moriwaka F, Tashiro K, Abe K. Demyelinating peripheral neuropathy in Devic disease. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol . 1991; 45 861-864
122 von Budingen C H, Tanuma N, Villoslada P, Ouallet J C, Hauser S L, Genain C P. Immune responses against the myelin/ oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in experimental autoimmune demyelination. J Clin Immunol . 2001; 21 155-170
123 Genain C P, Hauser S L. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the New World monkey Callithrix jacchus Immunol Rev . 2001; 183 159-172
124 Storch M K, Stefferl A, Brehm U. Autoimmunity to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in rats mimics the spectrum of multiple sclerosis pathology. Brain Pathol . 1998; 8 681-694
125 Stefferl A, Brehm U, Storch M. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein induces experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in the ``resistant'' Brown Norway rat: disease susceptibility is determined by MHC and MHC-linked effects on the B cell response. J Immunol . 1999; 163 40-49
126 Haase C G, Schmidt S. Detection of brain-specific autoantibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, S100beta and myelin basic protein in patients with Devic's neuromyelitis optica. Neurosci Lett . 2001; 307 131-133
127 Haase C G, Guggenmos J, Brehm U. The fine specificity of the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein autoantibody response in patients with multiple sclerosis and normal healthy controls. J Neuroimmunol . 2001; 114 220-225
128 Reindl M, Linington C, Brehm U. Antibodies against the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein and the myelin basic protein in multiple sclerosis and other neurological diseases: a comparative study. Brain . 1999; 122 2047-2056
129 Ortiz de Zarate C J, Tamaroff L, Sica R E, Rodriguez J A. Neuromyelitis optica versus subacute necrotic myelitis: II. Anatomical study of two cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1968; 31 641-645
130 Lefkowitz D, Angelo J N. Neuromyelitis optica with unusual vascular changes. Arch Neurol . 1984; 41 1103-1105
131 Marie P, Foix C, Alajouanine T. La myélite necrotique subaigue. Rev Neurol . 1926; 2 1-42
132 Lucchinetti C F, Mandler R N, McGavern D. A role for humoral mechanisms in the pathogenesis of Devic's neuromyelitis optica. Brain . 2002; 125 1450-1461
133 Stansbury F C. Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's disease): presentation of five cases with pathologic study, and review of the literature. Arch Ophthalmol . 1949; 42 292-501
134 Phalke R, Shrivatava M P. Neuromyelitis optica treated with cortisone [abstract]. J Indian Med Assoc . 1960; 34 177-178
135 Weinshenker B G, O'Brien P C, Petterson T M. A randomized trial of plasma exchange in acute central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease. Ann Neurol . 1999; 46 878-886
136 Keegan M, Pineda A A, McClelland R L, Darby C H, Rodriguez M, Weinshenker B G. Plasma exchange for severe attacks of CNS demyelination: predictors of response. Neurology . 2002; 58 143-146
137 Mandler R N, Ahmed W, Dencoff J E. Devic's neuromyelitis optica: a prospective study of seven patients treated with prednisone and azathioprine. Neurology . 1998; 51 1219-220
138 Aguilera A J, Carlow T J, Smith K J, Simon T L. Lymphocytaplasmapheresis in Devic's syndrome. Transfusion . 1985; 25 54-56
139 Kirschfink M. Targeting complement in therapy. Immunol Rev . 2001; 180 177-189
140 Levine T D, Pestronk A. IgM antibody-related polyneuropathies: B-cell depletion chemotherapy using Rituximab. Neurology . 1999; 52 1701-1704