Potential Antibacterial Activity of Moringa Leaf (Moringa oleifera) against Staphylococcus aureus and Porphyromonas gingivalis: Rapid Review

Abstract

Background

Periodontal disease is caused by plaque bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Porphyromonas gingivalis, which play a major role in its progression. Standard treatment involves scaling and root planing, often combined with antibiotics as adjunct therapy. However, inappropriate antibiotic use may lead to resistance. Therefore, natural antibacterial agents with a lower risk of resistance, such as Moringa oleifera leaves, are of interest. This review aimed to evaluate the antibacterial potential of Moringa oleifera leaf extract against S. aureus and P. gingivalis.

Materials and Methods

This study used the rapid review method. Article searches were conducted on four databases (PubMed, Scopus, EBSCOHost, and SpringerLink) as well as through manual searches. Questions for this study were organized according to PICO-focused principles and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses analysis was used. The types of articles used were English and Bahasa Indonesia articles with the type of in vitro research published in 2014 to 2024. The data in the articles included inhibition zone diameter and minimum inhibitory concentration.

Results

A total of eight articles were obtained, which showed the antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera leaf extract against S. aureus and P. gingivalis, as indicated by the inhibition zone diameters and minimum inhibitory concentrations.

Conclusion

Based on this review, it can be concluded that Moringa oleifera leaf extract has proven antibacterial potential against S. aureus and P. gingivalis, with varying results influenced by the type of solvent and extract concentration.

Keywords

antibacterial - Moringa oleifera - periodontal disease - Porphyromonas gingivalis - Staphylococcus aureus

Introduction

Periodontal disease is a pathological inflammatory condition of the gingiva and supporting tissues around the teeth, which includes the gingiva, periodontal ligament, alveolar bone, and cementum.[1] According to the World Health Organization, periodontal disease and tooth loss are among the most commonly found oral health problems.[2] Data from the Global Burden of Disease (2019) show that periodontal disease ranks as the seventh most prevalent disease globally, with a prevalence of 29.3%.[3] According to the Riskesdas report (2018), the prevalence of periodontal disease in Indonesia is 74.1%.[4] Based on the results of the report, it can be concluded that the prevalence of periodontal disease is significantly high, highlighting the urgent need for effective and preventive treatment.

Periodontal disease initially manifests as gingivitis, and if left untreated, it can progressively develop into periodontitis, characterized by the destruction of the supporting tissues of the teeth, leading to gingival recession, soft tissue damage, bone loss, and tooth loss.[5] [6] Several bacteria within the oral cavity can induce and exacerbate periodontal disease, including Staphylococcus aureus and Porphyromonas gingivalis.[5] [7] S. aureus contributes to the severity of the disease in the oral cavity by forming plaque in conjunction with other periodontal pathogens.[7] P. gingivalis plays a role in the development of periodontal disease, which can evade the immune response by creating a dysbiotic condition in the subgingival area, leading to increased pathogenicity and induces inflammation in the periodontal tissues.[5]

The gold standard of periodontal disease treatment is scaling and root planing, which aims to remove etiologic factors from the root surface.[8] This treatment significantly reduces the prevalence of subgingival microorganisms, although it does not eliminate all pathogens.[9] In patients with aggressive periodontitis, chronic periodontitis that does not respond to mechanical therapy, acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis, and periodontal abscesses, adjunctive therapy is required, namely, the use of antibiotics.[10] Inappropriate use of antibiotics can lead to bacterial resistance.[11] There is a need for alternative antibacterial compounds derived from natural sources that can be used as stable and safe adjunctive treatments with a lower risk of resistance. Natural substances can include biotic components such as plants, one of which is the moringa leaf (Moringa oleifera).

Moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) have empirically demonstrated therapeutic effects. For centuries, this plant has been used to create various medicines considered to possess ethnomedicinal properties in the treatment of diseases.[12] People worldwide have used moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) in the form of powders, oils, teas, and pastes for inflammatory conditions such as mouth sores, gum pain, and fever.[13] The availability and accessibility of the leaves make them a preferable option for medicinal use. Moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) are herbal plants that contain chemicals such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, polyphenols, phenols, phytosterols, and glucosinolates.[13] These compounds exhibit pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties.[13] The antibacterial activity of moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) is attributed to their chemical constituents, including flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, and tannins.[14]

Antibacterial activity refers to the ability of a substance to inhibit the growth or kill bacteria.[15] This activity can be observed by measuring the diameter of the inhibition zone and determining the minimum concentration required to inhibit bacterial growth.[16] Numerous pharmacological studies have been conducted on the antibacterial activity of moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) against periodontal disease-causing bacteria. In a study by Unegbu et al (2020)[17], it was shown that Moringa oleifera extract at a concentration of 200 mg/mL could inhibit S. aureus with an inhibition zone of 17 mm. In another study by Djais et al, it was found that Moringa oleifera extract could inhibit the growth of P. gingivalis at a 20% concentration, with an inhibition zone of 12.9 mm.[18] [19]

This review is the first to specifically synthesize recent evidence (2019–2023) on the antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera against S. aureus and P. gingivalis, linking these findings to its potential as an adjunctive therapy in periodontal treatment. Despite these findings, research on the application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract for oral health remains limited, and no study has systematically synthesized the available evidence to evaluate its potential as an adjunct to scaling and root planing. Moreover, no commercially available dental products currently incorporate Moringa oleifera for periodontal therapy. This review addresses this gap by compiling and analyzing existing literature on the antibacterial potential of Moringa oleifera against S. aureus and P. gingivalis, thereby providing a foundation for future clinical investigations and potential product development.

Materials and Methods

This study is a literature review employing a rapid review design. The research questions were formulated using the PICO framework, where P (population): S. aureus or P. gingivalis bacteria, I (intervention): Moringa oleifera leaf extract for antibacterial activity, C (comparison): placebo/standard antibiotics, and O (outcome): bacterial growth inhibition assessed by the diameter of the inhibition zone and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC).

This study was conducted at the Universitas Padjadjaran between October and November 2024 using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, EBSCOHost, and Springer Link. The inclusion criteria for this study were articles discussing the antibacterial activity of moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) against S. aureus or P. gingivalis, focusing on experimental (in vitro) studies published in English or Indonesian between 2014 and 2024. Literature review articles and those not available in full text were excluded. Boolean operators were used to conduct the literature search. The search was performed using the following keyword sequence: (“Moringa oleifera”) AND (“Staphylococcus aureus”) AND (“inhibition zone” OR “antibacterial”), and for Porphyromonas gingivalis bacteria, the sequence was (“Moringa oleifera”) AND (“Porphyromonas gingivalis”) AND (“inhibition zone” OR “antibacterial”). Hand searching was also conducted on other sources by reviewing the citations of journal articles relevant to this research. Publications on the antibacterial effect of Moringa oleifera included in this review were released between 2019 and 2023. The distribution by year was as follows: 2019 (three articles), 2020 (two articles), 2021 (two articles), and 2023 (one article), indicating that most studies were concentrated in the earlier years of the reviewed period.

Articles obtained from four databases and manual searches were selected and eliminated based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. This study applied the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses-Rapid Reviews analysis, beginning with the selection of relevant literature, followed by an analysis of the selected studies, and concluding with the reporting of results in the form of a data extraction table ([Table 1]). The research result will be presented in the form of tables and narrative descriptions to highlight the antibacterial potential of moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) against the bacteria S. aureus and P. gingivalis.

Table 1 Antibacterial activity of moringa leaf extract (Moringa oleifera)

No	Researcher	Bacteria	Solvent	Microorganism testing method	Preparations	Concentration (mg/mL)	Result		Interpretation of activity categories
							Inhibition zone diameter (mm)	MIC (mg/mL)
1.	Abdallah et al (2020)[40]	Staphylococcus aureus	Methanol	Well diffusion	Liquid	10	−		Resistant
						20	10		Moderate
						30	9		Moderate
						40	15		Strong
						50	17		Strong
			Distilled water			10	−		Resistant
						20	−		Resistant
						30	−		Resistant
						40	−		Resistant
						50	−		Resistant
2.	Fouad et al (2019)	Staphylococcus aureus	Hot water	Disk diffusion	Liquid	100	−		Resistant
			Cold water			100	14.75 ± 0.05		Strong
			Ethanol			100	26.75 ± 0.04		Very strong
			Hot water	Dilution		0.097–50		−	Resistant
			Cold water			0.097–50		50	Sensitive
			Ethanol			0.097–50		0.39	Sensitive
3.	Unegbu et al (2020)	Staphylococcus aureus	Ethanol	Well diffusion	Liquid	12.5	10		Moderate
						25	13		Strong
						50	17		Strong
						100	18		Strong
						200	20		Strong
			Distilled water			12.5	8		Moderate
						25	9		Moderate
						50	12		Strong
						100	15		Strong
						200	17		Strong
			Ethanol	Dilution		12.5–25		12.5	Sensitive
			Distilled water			25		25	Sensitive
4.	Enerijiofi et al (2021)	Staphylococcus aureus	Ethanol	Well diffusion	Liquid	25	12 ± 0.21		Strong
						50	15 ± 0.11		Strong
						100	17 ± 0.32		Strong
						200	23 ± 0.02		Very strong
			Distilled water			25	3 ± 0.02		Low
						50	4 ± 0.17		Low
						100	5 ± 0.34		Moderate
						200	6 ± 0.01		Moderate
			Ethanol	Dilution		6.25–50		6.25	Sensitive
			Distilled water			6.25–50		−	Resistant
5.	Issa et al (2021)	Staphylococcus aureus	Ethanol	Well diffusion	Liquid	20	5.0 ± 0.00		Moderate
						40	5.55 ± 1.00		Moderate
						60	6.00 ± 1.73		Moderate
						80	10.33 ± 1.15		Strong
						100	12.00 ± 1.41		Strong
			Distilled water			20	5.0 ± 0.00		Moderate
						40	5.50 ± 0.70		Moderate
						60	6.00 ± 1.41		Moderate
						80	7.00 ± 1.73		Moderate
						100	11.50 ± 0.70		Strong
			N-hexane			20	−		Resistant
						40	−		Resistant
						60	−		Resistant
						80	−		Resistant
						100	−		Resistant
			Ethanol	Dilution		20–100		60	Sensitive
			Distilled water			20–100		60	Sensitive
6.	Ida et al (2023)	Porphyromonas gingivalis	Ethanol	Dilution	Liquid	0.0002–0.1		0.0008	Sensitive
			Chitosan + Carbopol 940 + PEG 6000 Gel		Combination gel	0.0002–0.1		0.025	Sensitive
7.	Nagarajappa et al (2019)	Porphyromonas gingivalis	Ethanol	Well diffusion	Liquid	0.005	−		Resistant
						0.01	−		Resistant
						0.025	−		Resistant
						0.05	8 ± 0.707 mm		Moderate
						0.075	10.2 ± 0.837 mm		Strong
			Petroleum ether			0.005	−		Resistant
						0.01	−		Resistant
						0.025	−		Resistant
						0.05	10 ± 0.707 mm		Strong
						0.075	10.2 ± 0.836 mm		Strong
			Ethanol	Dilution		0.05		0.05	Sensitive
			Petroleum ether			0.05		0.05	Sensitive
8.	Djais et al (2019)	Porphyromonas gingivalis	Ethanol	Well diffusion	Liquid	200	12.9		Strong
						250	13.3		Strong
				Dilution		150–1000		200	Sensitive

Abbreviation: MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration.

Results

A total of 253 articles were retrieved from the databases during the initial search, with the following breakdown: 51 articles were obtained from PubMed, 28 from Scopus, 49 from EBSCOHost, 151 from Springer Link, and 2 articles were retrieved through manual search. After the removal of duplicates, 178 articles remained. Subsequently, relevance assessments were made based on titles and abstracts, resulting in 21 articles that met the eligibility criteria. These articles were then subjected to full-text review, leading to the identification of 6 articles. Additionally, two more articles from manual search fulfilled all inclusion criteria. This article selection process is illustrated in [Fig. 1]. Of the eight articles included, all reported that Moringa oleifera leaf extract exhibits antibacterial activity, as evidenced by the formation of inhibition zones and the determination of MICs.

Fig. 1 Article selection process using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).

All studies employed experimental (in vitro) research designs. Of the eight articles included, all investigated the antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera leaf extract against S. aureus and P. gingivalis bacteria. The parameters used to determine antibacterial activity were the diameter of the inhibition zone and the MIC. The results of the article selection process are summarized in [Table 2]. The highest inhibition zone diameter obtained for S. aureus was 26 mm, while for P. gingivalis, it was 13 mm. The lowest MIC recorded for S. aureus was 0.39 mg/mL, while for P. gingivalis, the lowest MIC was 0.0008 mg/mL. Complete results are presented in [Table 1].

Table 2 Data extraction results

Writer	Year of publication	Article title	Research design	Summary
Muhammad S. Abdallah, Fatima Muhammad Machina, Ibrahim A. S.	2020	Antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera methanolic leaves extracts against some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial isolates[20]	In vitro	The methanol extract of moringa leaves showed different zones of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus depending on the concentration level, while the aqueous extract of moringa leaves did not produce any zone of inhibition
Ehab Ali Fouad, Azza S. M. Abu Elnaga, and Mai M. Kandil	2019	Antibacterial efficacy of Moringa oleifera leaf extract against pyogenic bacteria isolated from a dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) abscess[21]	In vitro	The ethanol extract of moringa leaves showed stronger antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus than the cold water extract, while the hot water extract showed no antibacterial activity
Valentine Unegbu, Ndidi Ethel Nkwoemeka, F. Okey-Ndeche dan C. Obum-Nnadi	2020	Phytochemical and antibacterial properties of Moringa oleifera leaf extracts on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus [17]	In vitro	The ethanol extract of moringa leaves showed stronger antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus as the concentration increased, compared to the aqueous extract of moringa leaves
Kingsley Erhons Enerijiofi, Funmilayo Hannah Akapo, Joseph Omorogiuwa Erhabor	2021	GC–MS analysis and antibacterial activities of Moringa oleifera leaf extracts on selected clinical bacterial isolates[22]	In vitro	The antibacterial activity of moringa ethanol extract is stronger against Staphylococcus aureus than the aqueous extract and increases with increasing extract concentration
Sheriffdeen Bale Issa, Muhyiddeen Muazu, dan Isma'il Rabi'u	2021	Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera leaves extracts against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [23]	In vitro	Staphylococcus aureus showed higher sensitivity to the aqueous extract and ethanol extract of moringa leaves, while the n-hexane extract showed no antibacterial activity against the isolated tested
Minnu Joe Ida, Bhavya Shetty, Safiya Fatima Khan, Umesh Yadalam, Manjusha Nambiar	2023	Development and in vitro characterization of a mucoadhesive gel with Moringa oleifera extract for periodontal drug delivery[24]	In vitro	Moringa leaf extract can inhibit the growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis, which is a pathogen in the development of periodontal disease
Ramesh Nagarajappa, Nikhil V. Bhanushali, Gayathri Ramesh, Parin V. Bhanushali, Pankaj Aapaliya, Piyush Pujara	2019	Antimicrobial activity of Moringa oleifera extracts against common periodontal pathogens: potential application in the prevention and treatment of oral diseases[25]	In vitro	Porphyromonas gingivalis was sensitive to moringa leaf extract at a concentration og 0.05 mg/mL and showed an inhibition zone that increased with increasing concentration
Arni Irawaty Djais, Hasanuddin Tahir, Mochammad Hatta, Harun Achma, Ainul Wahyuni	2019	Differences of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of moringa leaf extract (Moringa oleifera L.) on bacteria Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis [19]	In vitro	Porphyromonas gingivalis was sensitive to moringa ethanol extract at a concentration of 200 mg/mL and showed an inhibition zone that increased with increasing concentration

Abbreviation: GC-MS, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Discussion

The analysis focused on in vitro studies of oral pathogens, specifically the bacteria S. aureus and P. gingivalis. The results indicate that Moringa oleifera leaf extract exhibits antibacterial activity against S. aureus with inhibition zone diameters ranging from 3 to 26 mm, while inhibition zones against P. gingivalis ranged from 8 to 13 mm.[19] [20] [21] [22] [25] The MIC of Moringa oleifera leaf extract against S. aureus ranged from 0.39 to 60 mg/mL, while for P. gingivalis, the MIC ranged from 0.0008 to 200 mg/mL.[19] [21] [23] [24]

Moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) are an ethnomedicinal herbal plant that contains various phytochemicals such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic acids, which have varying levels of polarity.[13] The large number of hydroxyl groups in these compounds provides the potential to cause various pharmacological effects, including antibacterial activity, as reported in [Table 1]. These phytochemicals exhibit therapeutic effects, including antibacterial,[22] anti-inflammatory,[25] wound healing, and tissue regeneration activities.[27] Flavonoids have various antibacterial mechanisms of action, including inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis, disrupting bacterial biofilm formation through quorum sensing, damaging bacterial cell membranes and cell walls, and inhibiting efflux pumps, which can prevent bacterial resistance, a major challenge in antibacterial treatment of infections.[28] [29] The primary flavonoids found in Moringa oleifera leaves are quercetin and kaempferol, both of which exhibit antiallergic properties by inhibiting the release of β-hexosaminidase and histamine with IC50 values of 19.07 and 7.77 µM for quercetin and 29.39 and 46.94 µM for kaempferol, respectively.[30] Alkaloids can inhibit bacterial metabolism by interfering with adenosine triphosphate production, damaging peptidoglycan components of the bacterial cell wall, inhibiting bacterial protease activity, and affecting the deoxyribonucleic acid topoisomerase activity and bacterial respiration, thus inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis and bacterial growth.[28] [31] [32] The antibacterial mechanism possessed by these phytochemicals underlies the antibacterial activity of moringa leaves.

Moringa oleifera leaf extract exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (P. gingivalis). This antibacterial activity was characterized by the formation of an inhibition zones on the media where the bacteria were cultured. The antibacterial strength is classified on the diameter of the inhibition zone as follows: < 5 mm (weak), 5 to 10 mm (moderate), 11 to 20 mm (strong), and > 20 mm (very strong).[33] In addition, the dilution test confirmed the antibacterial activity by determining the lowest concentration of extract capable of inhibiting bacterial growth. Antibacterial activity was observed though bacterial growth inhibition at various tested extract concentration. The lower the concentration required to inhibit bacterial growth, the stronger the antibacterial activity of the extract.[34]

Flavonoids and alkaloids are the predominant phytochemicals found in Moringa oleifera leaves.[28] These compounds are polar and can be extracted using polar solvents such as water, methanol, and ethanol. The ethanol extract of Moringa oleifera leaves produced a higher yield (62.87%) compared to the water extract (40.75%).[22] This is consistent with the findings of Issa et al, who tested Moringa oleifera leaf extracts on S. aureus using ethanol, distilled water, and n-hexane solvents at the same concentration showed different activities. In testing with a concentration of 80 mg/mL, the inhibition zone diameters were 10.33 ± 1.15 mm (strong category) for the ethanol extract, 7.00 ± 1.73 (moderate category) for the water extract, and no inhibition zone was observed for the n-hexane extract.[23] These differences are attributed to solvent polarity. Water, being highly polar, primarily extracts polar compounds, whereas ethanol, as an amphipathic solvent, can extract both polar and nonpolar compounds.[22]

The antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera leaf extract can be observed though the increasing diameter of the inhibition zone as the extract concentration increases. The inhibition zone represents the area around the disk or well where bacterial growth is inhibited.[33] The review findings across all articles indicate that higher extract concentration results in larger inhibition zone diameters. This is consistent with the findings of Djais et al, who reported that Moringa oleifera leaf extract concentration of 200 mg/mL produced a strong-category inhibition zone of 12.9 mm against P. gingivalis, which increased to 13.3 mm at a concentration of 250 mg/mL.[19] Similar results were observed by Enerijiofi et al, who reported that Moringa oleifera leaf extract at a concentration of 25 mg/mL produced an inhibition zone of 12 ± 0.21 mm against S. aureus, which increased to 23 ± 0.02 mm at 200 mg/mL, classified as a very strong inhibition zone.[19]

Dilution testing allows the determination of the lowest concentration of Moringa oleifera leaf extract that inhibits visible bacterial growth. Higher extract concentrations generally exhibit stronger antibacterial effects. Fouad et al tested Moringa oleifera leaf extract against S. aureus at concentrations ranging from 0.097 to 50 mg/mL, and reported a MIC of 0.39 mg/mL.[21] According to Nagarajappa et al, a concentration of 0,5 mg/mL of Moringa oleifera leaf extract was the minimum required to inhibit the growth of P. gingivalis.[25]

Moringa oleifera leaf extract exhibits broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. According to Fouad et al, Moringa oleifera leaf extract at a concentration of 100 mg/mL exhibited a very strong inhibition zone of 26.75 ± 0.04 mm against S. aureus, exceeding that of the positive control tetracycline, which produced an inhibition zone of 17.20 ± 0.13 mm.[21] In a study by Djais et al, Moringa oleifera leaf extract at a concentration of 200 mg/mL inhibited P. gingivalis more effectively than the positive control metronidazole, which required a concentration of 500 mg/mL to achieve similar antibacterial effects.[19]

This review revealed that antibacterial activity is influenced by both the type of solvent used and the concentration of the extract. Solvent polarity plays a crucial role in the extraction process, as compounds tend to dissolve more readily in solvents with similar polarity. When the solubility properties of the solvent and the compound are comparable, the solvent can penetrate the cell and cause swelling of the protoplasm. This facilitates the dissolution of intracellular compounds into the solvent according to their solubility.[35] Ethanol has proven to be a more effective extraction solvent, producing higher yields compared to other solvents. Extract concentration also affects antibacterial activity; higher concentrations result in larger inhibition zones and greater effectiveness in inhibiting bacterial growth.

Potential applications of Moringa oleifera leaf extract in dentistry include its incorporation into formulations such as mouthwash, toothpaste, and lozenge.[36] [37] The results showed that lozenges of Moringa oleifera leaf extract used alone or in combination with Cyanthillium cinereum extract can reduce inflammation and reduce the percentage of gingival index (GI) in smokers diagnosed with gingivitis significantly compared to placebo.[36] A mouthwash containing Moringa oleifera leaf extract also showed a significant reduction in plaque and gingivitis, as shown by a significant decrease in plaque index (PI) and GI compared to placebo.[38] Similar results were observed with toothpaste formulations containing Moringa oleifera leaf extract, which is effective in reducing plaque and treating gingivitis, as evidenced by a significant decrease in the GI and PI compared to miswak toothpaste.[37] Sawant et al reported that a gel containing 4% Moringa oleifera leaf extract demonstrated comparable efficacy to 1% chlorhexidine gel in reducing GI, PI, and papillary bleeding index when used as adjunctive therapy for scaling and root planing with topical application.[39] In conclusion, Moringa oleifera leaves have significant potential for further development as antibacterial agents, both as herbal medicines and as raw materials for pharmaceutical products.

This study may serve as a foundation for the development of antibacterial agents derived from Moringa oleifera leaf extract. Further in vitro studies targeting other periodontal pathogens are warranted, and additional research is needed to explore the pharmacological potential of Moringa oleifera leaf extract in the prevention and management of periodontal disease. Moreover, clinical trials are essential to develop appropriate formulations and to produce safe and effective Moringa oleifera-based products as adjunctive therapies to scaling and root planing.

Conclusion

Moringa oleifera leaf extract has antibacterial potential against S. aureus and P. gingivalis, as evidenced by the formation of inhibition zones and the determination of MICs.

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

Acknowledgment

Thank you to the Faculty of Dentistry, Universitas Padjadjaran for supporting the entire research.

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Publication History

Article published online:
19 November 2025