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Semin Reprod Med
DOI: 10.1055/s-0045-1810601
Review Article

The Long-term Health Effects of Early Menopause

Susanna M. Savukoski
1   Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oulu University Hospital, Wellbeing Services County of North Ostrobothnia, Oulu, Finland
2   Medical Research Center, University of Oulu and Oulu University Hospital, Wellbeing Services County of North Ostrobothnia, Oulu, Finland
,
Maarit Niinimäki 
1   Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oulu University Hospital, Wellbeing Services County of North Ostrobothnia, Oulu, Finland
2   Medical Research Center, University of Oulu and Oulu University Hospital, Wellbeing Services County of North Ostrobothnia, Oulu, Finland
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Abstract

Although the average age of menopause in western women is 50 years, 10% of women experience menopause between the age of 40 and 44 (early menopause) and 2 to 3% before the age of 40 (premature ovarian insufficiency). Although the etiology of early-onset menopause varies, it remains unknown in most cases. The most common reasons are genetic factors or chromosomal abnormalities, cancer treatment, bilateral oophorectomy, and autoimmune diseases. Early or premature menopause can negatively impact a woman's long-term health. There is strong evidence that these conditions increase the risk of osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity, and premature mortality. There is comparatively little evidence, however, on other associated health risks or on their potential for mitigation by hormone replacement therapy (HRT). In this review, we examine the literature on the long-term health of women with early-onset menopause, particularly its effects on morbidity, mortality, and quality of life. At-risk women and their physicians should be aware of the age-related risks of menopause to avoid or mitigate negative outcomes.

Keywords

menopause - early menopause - premature ovarian insufficiency - hormone replacement therapy - cardiovascular disease


Publication History

Article published online:
01 August 2025

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