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DOI: 10.1055/s-0045-1809533
The Bilingual Gullah Geechee: Diversity in African American Language
- Abstract
- Linguistic Development and Diversity in AAE
- Origin of Gullah Geechee
- Creole Language Development
- The Bilingual Gullah Geechee
- Generational Language Shift and Cultural Identity
- Gullah Geechee Educational and Social Implications: Lessons for African American Dialects
- Conclusion
- References
Abstract
This article explores the linguistic and cultural significance of Gullah Geechee, an English-based Creole language, and its speakers as bilingual users. It examines the historical roots, linguistic features, and sociocultural importance of Gullah Geechee, which emerged from the interaction of African languages and English during the transatlantic slave trade. The study highlights Gullah Geechee's role as a linguistic variety used by African Americans, focusing on its phonological, syntactical, and lexical traits while challenging the marginalization of both Gullah Geechee and African American English as “broken” English. This article also looks at generational shifts in language use and identity among Gullah Geechee speakers, from historical stigmatization to a modern revival of cultural pride. It advocates for recognizing Gullah Geechee and African American English as legitimate languages, promoting culturally responsive teaching and bidialectal education. Emphasizing the need for systemic change, this article calls for the validation of heritage languages to support linguistic justice, academic success, and cultural preservation. Through its exploration of language structures, educational frameworks, and social attitudes, this work contributes to discussions on bilingualism and the preservation of marginalized dialects in American society.
Keywords
African American English - diversity - Gullah Geechee - generational shifts - linguistic featuresLearning Outcomes: As a result of this activity, the reader will be able to:
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Understand the historical origins and evolution of Gullah Geechee.
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Identify and articulate the unique linguistic features of Gullah Geechee and AAE, equipping them to challenge misconceptions and promote these as valid linguistic systems.
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Develop an appreciation for the cultural significance of Gullah Geechee as a vital part of African American identity, fostering respect and inclusivity in their work with diverse communities.
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Understand how language shapes identity and self-esteem, enabling them to advocate for initiatives that empower students and community members through the recognition of their linguistic heritage.
Linguistic Development and Diversity in AAE
African Americans have been systematically lumped into one category as a race of people without consideration of the variations that exist within and across communities within the United States. These variations represent a race of people who carry similarities but have also diverged in distinct ways. Aside from the range of skin tones that visibly identify African Americans, African American English (AAE) language has been extensively studied within sociolinguistics and education (Green, 2002; Rickford, 1999; Wolfram & Thomas, 2002).
As we consider language across the African American diaspora, scholars agree on the origins of the Gullah Geechee (GG) language but have yet to coalesce on an answer to questions around the origins of AAE. Weldon and Moody (2015) assert that AAE did not emerge in isolation but rather evolved alongside and in interaction with GG, reflecting a historical process of language change influenced by social, geographic, and cultural factors. GG retains significant grammatical, phonological, and lexical features of its African origins, and AAE shares some of these linguistic traits, though in a more English-influenced form. The enslaved Africans experienced unprecedented life circumstances that contributed to the creation of the GG language and culture. This linguistic variety is the legacy of the African connection of those enslaved and is a thread in the fabric of modern African American culture.
In the book “African American English,” Lisa Green (2002) examines the linguistic features and cultural significance of AAE. Green explores AAE as a distinct variety of English spoken by African Americans, challenging misconceptions and stereotypes surrounding its usage. The formation of AAE is deeply rooted in interactions of enslaved Africans, their descendants, and speakers of various English dialects. As a result, AAE represents a linguistic manifestation of African American identity and cultural heritage. AAE is characterized by phonological, syntactical, and lexical differences from Standard American English (SAE). Some notable phonological features include the presence of vowel shifts and consonant cluster simplification. Syntactically, AAE often uses habitual “be” (e.g., “He be working”) and deletion of copula verbs (e.g., “She running”). Additionally, AAE may exhibit lexical items derived from African languages or cultural expressions. Over the past decade, AAE studies across various fields have emphasized that AAE is not “broken” English but a distinct and valid linguistic system with its own grammatical rules, vocabulary, and pronunciation patterns (Green, 2002; Smitherman, 2021; Washington & Craig, 1994). These works have collectively shifted the perceptions of AAE as historically marginalized and stigmatized within mainstream American society and education to positioning AAE as a legitimate and rule-governed dialect.
The stigmatization of AAE has resulted in negative stereotypes, contributing to educational disparities that impact the self-esteem and academic performance of African American students. Students are often assessed as less competent or “deficient” due to their use of AAE, leading to disparities in academic evaluation, teacher expectations, and educational opportunities (Lippi-Green, 2012; Rahman, 2008). The education system's failure to acknowledge AAE as a valid dialect contributes to the underachievement of African American students (Beaubrun, 2020).
Origin of Gullah Geechee
As we consider language across the diaspora, scholars agree on the origins of the GG language but have yet to coalesce on an answer to questions around the origins of AAE. In the absence of consensus on the origins of AAE, researchers have persisted in the documentation of the unique linguistic structures that differentiate AAE and GG from other English varieties (Weldon & Moody, 2015).
GG people are descendants of enslaved Africans who were kidnapped and brought to the United States during the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Many of the enslaved were brought from West African countries like Sierra Leone, Angola, Benin, Senegal, and The Gambia. Additionally, many were brought from Afro-Caribbean countries like Jamaica, Guyana, and Barbados to work at the behest of enslavers, focusing on building wealth for the enslavers' families. The origins of the GG language and people are deeply rooted in African traditions, language, and the history of slavery in the southeastern United States.
Although not widely known around the world or across the country, GG people have made significant contributions to the fabric of the United States and Southern history. Their unique knowledge and skill contributed to the success of indigo, cotton, and Carolina gold rice, the cash crops of the South, which contributed to the financial stability of the early United States (Carney, 2001). Although the GG people contributed their lives to the success of the country, the inequitable practice and wealth gaps remain persistent. The contributions of GG people are visibly and audibly evident across the Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor which spans four states, namely, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida (GGCHCC National Park Service, 2012). Most widely recognized as GG are the Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia, while the corridor is documented as spanning from the sea islands, 30 miles inland to interior coastal GG communities like Huger, Cainhoy, Wando, Mt. Pleasant, Awendaw, and McClellanville. Modern GG speakers are direct descendants of enslaved Africans who were brought to work the coastal rice plantations of South Carolina and Georgia in the 1700s (see [Fig. 1]).


Gadsden's Wharf is home to the International African American Museum (IAAM), which is a raised design that does not sit on the ground in honor of the many lives lost and forever changed during the journey to American soil. This location is important to GG history as scholars document that over 40% of the kidnapped Africans disembarked at Gadsden's Wharf in Charleston, South Carolina, from the late 1760s to 1801 and were subsequently dispersed along the Southeastern coast (Preservation Society of Charleston, 2024).
Creole Language Development
The enslaved spoke 40 to 50 different tribal languages from the coast and inland regions of West Africa, including but not limited to Wolof, Malinke, Mandinka, Fula, Vai, Ewe, Bini, Yoruba, Mende, Ibo, Ibibio, Efik, Umbundu, Twi (Turner, 1949). In general, the enslaved Africans' communication in English represented their second, third, and in some cases fourth language (Nichols, 2009, pp. 53–54). Creoles develop in social contexts where speakers of diverse linguistic backgrounds create a pidgin (a simplified form of communication). When children grow up using the pidgin, they expand it into a creole with grammatical complexity (Bickerton, 1981).
The U.S. Census does not specifically track “GG” as a distinct racial or ethnic category. GG speakers are relegated to selecting English as their primary language or writing in GG as their ethnic group. However, the U.S. Census Bureau collects data on language spoken at home through the American Community Survey (ACS).[1] Gullah is currently coded on the classified as Sea Island Creole (Gul). Moreover, there are no data regarding the current number of GG speakers across the United States.
Creolization begins with the development of a Pidgin. A Pidgin is “any combination and distortion of two languages as a means of communication” and “Any lingua franca consisting of English and another language” (The Chambers Dictionary 1993). Pidgins are also regarded as languages without native speakers. Sebba (1997) explains that conditions of social upheaval and rapid social change (i.e., slavery and the great migration of the 20th century) allow for new communities to be settled where children are born and acquire the pidgin variety (National Archives: The Great Migration). The pidgin becomes the native language of the children and is therefore considered creolized, with the resulting language called a creole. This process occurred as enslaved Africans were forced to create new settlements on the isolated sea islands of South Carolina and Georgia, creating the English-based Creole language, GG. This language holds cultural and historical significance, preserving the oral traditions, stories, and experiences of the GG people, who are descendants of enslaved Africans in the region.
Lorenzo Dow Turner (1949) conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of GG to date. His study came during a time when linguistic scholars rejected the consideration of GG as a language. His work focused on identifying African roots or “Africanisms” in the Gullah language and culture. He wanted to systematically dismantle the supposition that GG was simply a “broken” form of English and he sought to demonstrate its linguistic connections to African languages. To examine and document the language, Turner recorded folk stories, prayers, songs, and recollections of slavery in the 1930s from GG residents of Edisto Island, Johns Island, and Wadamalaw Island, SC (Berry, 2020).
The Bilingual Gullah Geechee
Ideologies around dialects, regional varieties, and multilingual communication styles challenge the long-standing definitions of languages (Wagner et al., 2022). Consequently, much ambiguity exists in defining what it means to be bilingual. A lack of a universally accepted definition of bilingualism often leaves the interpretation dependent on context, purpose, and individual self-perception. As a result, self-reported measures are commonly used in bilingualism research, but subjective perceptions can influence their accuracy.
Generally, bilingualism is an individual's ability to use two languages proficiently. This can vary from being fluent in both languages to having proficiency in one language over another. Bilingualism is not just a linguistic phenomenon but is deeply tied to identity, culture, and power dynamics. Societal attitudes toward bilingualism vary, although multilingualism is the norm in many regions worldwide (Özşen et al., 2020). AAE scholars have challenged the traditional definitions of bilingualism, arguing that AAE should be recognized as a legitimate linguistic system, representing a form of bilingualism for African American students (Boutte & Johnson, 2013; Beaubrun, 2020; Green, 2002). This framework challenges traditional definitions of bilingualism by advocating for AAE as a culturally rich and complex dialect rather than a substandard form of English.
Bilingualism provides several cognitive advantages, particularly in executive control, involving problem-solving, task-switching, and focusing attention. Bilingualism enhances mental flexibility, allowing individuals to adapt more easily to new situations and manage multiple tasks simultaneously. Bilingual individuals experience benefits that extend across the lifespan, from childhood through old age, underscoring the importance of fostering and maintaining bilingual skills (Bialystok, 2022). The traditional definition of bilingualism is that a person has equal fluency in two languages acquired early within the natural setting. The modern, expanded view of bilingualism recognizes the diversity of how languages are learned, used, and maintained.
Those acquiring the GG language fit within both the traditional and modern, expanded view of bilingualism. Many GG are equally fluent in both GG and either SAE and/or AAE, which is often acquired within their school setting or by listening and learning to code-switch to an approximation of mainstream language via close family and friends (Beaubrun, 2020; McCullough, 2023). This ability to switch between multiple languages and dialects lends credence for GG speakers to be considered multilingual. Code-switching is the ability to move between languages and dialects like AAE and SAE, depending on context. Code-switching is highlighted as a valuable skill for African American students, worthy of explicit instruction and positive reinforcement (Boutte & Johnson, 2013). GG language use, as speakers often adjust their linguistic styles to cater to different audiences, especially tourists. GG speakers might switch between traditional language forms and a more “mainstream” version of English, depending on factors such as audience familiarity with the culture, perceived expectations, and the purpose of the interaction (e.g., storytelling, guiding, or education). This stylistic variation is often intentional and serves multiple purposes such as comprehensibility, authenticity, and economic considerations (McCullough, 2023). Linguistic features common across creole include a lack of inflectional morphology, subject-verb-object word order, and the use of tense-modality-aspect markers (Bickerton, 1981).
Historically, GG people have not been proud of their language but have always been proud of their culture. It has been considered derogatory to be called Geechee. Particularly, people would often use the phrase, “rice-eating Geechee” as a negative term to describe those who are of GG descent (Campbell, 2016). However, in the past 10 years, pride has been resurgent in being authentically GG. This has been demonstrated by the GG people's use of traditional phrases or expressions to highlight their linguistic heritage. The increased use of the language is an attempt to convey an authentic connection to the GG culture using the language and intentional preservation of cultural practices. GG spoken in its truest form may be unfamiliar to many listeners. Therefore, GG speakers attempt to simplify and modify their language for clarity and accessibility, especially for audiences who are unfamiliar with the nuances of the language. Television programs like “Gullah Gullah Island,” which aired from 1994 to 2000, played a significant role in affirming Black children's cultural identity by depicting a GG family. This representation educated broader audiences about Gullah heritage and contributed to cultural pride within the community. Annual events like the GG herbal gathering on Johns Island, South Carolina, founded by Khetnu Nefer, educate participants on traditional herbal medicine practices. These gatherings bridge generational gaps, fostering renewed interest among younger members in ancestral healing methods (The Guardian, 2025). These efforts collectively contribute to the resilience and continuity of GG cultural heritage in the face of external pressures.
McCullough (2023) notes that many GG adjust their language to meet the expectations of tourists who enjoy the beauty of the coastal region; unfortunately, many speakers face the pressure to adjust their language and align with stereotypes that their language is not sufficient. The GG language is often romanticized for tourism dollars, which could lead to a commodification of language and identity. GG people are also strategic about educating tourists about the richness, beauty, and complexity of the language, challenging misconceptions and emphasizing that GG is a language and not broken English.
The GG language is rich in examples of words and phrases that do not have one-to-one translations to SAE, thus making it difficult for those who do not speak the language to fully understand and embrace what the speaker may be communicating. The following tables provide some examples of commonly used GG words and phrases. [Table 1] provides examples of GG words that significantly differ from SAE, and [Table 2] provides examples of GG phrases (Berry, 2020). GG is not a written variety; therefore, the provided written examples are based on the author's native transcription of the forms. These selected words and phrases are some of the most recognizable forms in the language across the corridor. The GG language can be heard via Knowitall.org, which features educational series, curriculum, and lesson plans that focus on the GG people and culture (South Carolina ETV, n.d.).
Generational Language Shift and Cultural Identity
GG, like all languages, changes over time. From one generation to another, different experiences and changes in the geographical landscape have shifted the sound of the GG language across the corridor. The elder generation of speakers used more words that could be directly linked back to Africa (i.e., tote, Buckra, yeddi, and yam), which are infrequently used by modern GG speakers (Turner, 1949, Mufwene, 1998). This generational language shift can also be attributed to gentrification and the influx of new residents to the corridor region. In search of nice weather and warm beaches, migration of people from northern states to the South has displaced many traditional GG settlement communities. The creation of the GG language was due in large part to the isolation of the enslaved on rural islands and inland areas. However, after building the first bridges in the 1920s, GG people began to have more exposure to mainstream culture, which would have an impact on the preservation of the basilectal variety of the language. GG has influenced and been influenced by AAE, particularly as speakers transitioned from the more creole-like structures of Gullah to more English-based varieties of AAE due to increased contact with SAE speakers (Weldon & Moody, 2015). The desegregation of schools and intermixing of communities has put GG youth in contact with SAE speakers at an earlier age than their parents and their grandparents. As a result, GG speakers' language began the shift due to pressures for assimilation into mainstream culture, creating a variety of the language that has fewer African words but maintains the rich tone and rhythm that people know and expect of the GG language.
Furthermore, GG youth and young adults retain a celebration for their cultural identity where one generation was ashamed to be considered GG, whereas modern GG youth wear their identity as a badge of cultural pride. This pride is shown through the creation of various GG-branded social media platforms and more frequent use of the GG language on social media posts. This open use of the language in public is in stark contrast to the older generation, where open acceptance of being GG was defamatory. This change in language use and pride in being GG brings renewed hope to the community for the maintenance and retention of the language over time.
Gullah Geechee Educational and Social Implications: Lessons for African American Dialects
Given that GG has long received negative considerations about being a legitimate language within the southern educational system, there has not been any official acknowledgment of its existence or creation of sufficient support for students with GG heritage. In April 1974, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) adopted the Students' Right to Their Own Language resolution (Conference on College Composition and Communication, 1974). It affirmed that students should not be penalized or judged based on their use of nonstandard dialects, particularly AAE, in the classroom. The SRTOL resolution was a critical step toward linguistic justice, offering a framework for how schools and educators could better support students who speak nonstandard dialects, particularly AAE (Smitherman, 1995). This resolution can serve as a blueprint for school districts within the GG corridor to inform their approach to affirming a student's heritage language. Affirmation of a student's native or heritage language is the first step toward the inclusion of cultural variance within the educational environment. Although this resolution was passed in 1974, many do not recognize or understand the value of bilingualism.
Educational systems should be challenged to value and promote bilingualism, which has proven to lead to cognitive advantages that may enhance overall academic performance and learning ability (Bialystok, 2022). Educators can explicitly acknowledge and include the native language experiences of their students to foster positive relationships and trust within the educational environment. Beaubrun (2020) advocates for bi-dialectal education programs, which support students in developing proficiency in both AAE and SAE. Such programs aim to affirm students' cultural and linguistic heritage while providing them with the skills needed to succeed in environments where SAE is dominant. Similar frameworks should be utilized in schools with high concentrations of GG speakers, creating a more holistic environment where one language variety is not elevated above another but used to further develop the bilingual and/or bidialectal skills of the student (Green, 2023, Bryan et. al, 2022). Given that educational programs do not currently exist specifically for GG people, educators in Green (2023) expressed the need for the inclusion of diversity-focused courses in preservice teacher education programs and the provision of ongoing professional development workshops centered on culturally responsive teaching (CRT) practices. Furthermore, they expressed the importance of having more flexibility within the curriculum to effectively incorporate CRT strategies that address the cultural and linguistic diversity of their student population.
Culturally responsive approaches in education, particularly in early literacy and language development programs, are vital to student literacy development and mastery. This practice respects and integrates African American linguistic heritage into the curriculum (Boutte & Johnson, 2013). Washington and Craig (1994) conclude that teachers and clinicians must distinguish between dialectal variations and true language disorders to better support the linguistic needs of African American preschoolers. Where professionals have struggled in the mastery of this framework is not in the ability to distinguish a language difference but to acknowledge and provide the appropriate levels of support. Therefore, Wiese (2004) emphasizes the need for professional development and training for teachers to handle the complexities of bilingual education effectively. The study suggests that policymakers should consider the cultural and societal factors influencing language learning and address inequities that may hinder non-native English speakers. The study highlights the importance of providing continuous support for both languages to ensure that students achieve biliteracy. Though no programs currently exist to directly address the biliteracy of GG speakers, the Encourage Me program was created to introduce educators with the Charleston County School district to the GG culture. The program has served over 600 educators and provided foundational information on GG history, culture, and language to both new and veteran educators assisting with navigating the unique culture that may be encountered within the classroom (Berry, 2016).
Although GG is an English-based Creole language, the concept of immersion of speakers in an environment where they can systematically rather than forcibly learn SAE should be explored. For example, Two-Way Immersion (TWI) programs are designed to develop bilingualism and biliteracy by integrating native English speakers with dual language learners in the same classroom, using both languages for instruction. The study suggests that maintaining the home language does not hinder, but rather supports, English language development, leading to stronger bilingual skills. To date, GG has not been integrated and used for instruction to support the bilingual capabilities of young speakers. Home language support helps preserve cultural identity and facilitates smoother transitions for dual-language learners as they acquire English, contributing to higher engagement and motivation (Serafini et al., 2020).
Encouraging biliteracy not only supports academic achievement but also contributes to the cultural pride and resilience of African American students (Boutte & Johnson, 2013). Smitherman (2021) emphasizes the role of language in community and solidarity, as AAE fosters a sense of belonging and connection within African American communities. The validation of a student's home language can lead to increased self-esteem, academic engagement, and stronger identity development. Schools often fail to acknowledge the linguistic strengths of African American students, which can result in a deficit view of their language skills. Particularly, for children who speak GG, the validation that they speak a language can go a long way to building their self-esteem and engagement within the classroom.
Green (2023) found that while many educators aim to implement CRT, they struggle due to a lack of training, resources, and cultural knowledge. Teachers can enhance instruction by incorporating GG stories, history, and language into lessons, validating students' cultural backgrounds and making learning more relevant. Given the communal nature of the GG people, educators should focus on building strong, trusting relationships with students and families, fostering an inclusive learning environment. Young students may not recognize their heritage language as distinct from standard English, particularly in rural communities; thus, educators should encourage code-switching as an option rather than a requirement, framing bilingualism as an asset. However, barriers such as limited professional development and the rigid focus on standardized testing hinder effective CRT integration. Schools should allocate space for culturally relevant instruction and foster partnerships with GG communities and cultural experts to provide resources that support meaningful CRT implementation.
Conclusion
The linguistic and cultural richness of GG is essential and unique to the history of the United States. The context in which the language emerged and has remained preserved should be commended, supported, studied, and affirmed. Despite inadequate bilingual instruction, GG people have successfully navigated the silent expectation of code-switching to SAE to gain access to educational and career opportunities. Nevertheless, GG people have retained the African spirit through foodways, cultural ways, spiritual ways, and linguistic ways. The bilingual GG have persevered despite the need for systemic changes in educational practices to better support culturally diverse students, particularly those from historically marginalized communities like the GG.
In the future, clinicians are encouraged to use dynamic assessment strategies and language samples to assess the language abilities of GG speakers. Standardized assessments like the Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation Norm Referenced (DELV-NR) may be used, as it was normed on speakers of AAE; however, caution should be exercised as GG speakers were not included in the normative sample. GG speakers should be considered in the development of educational policies that highlight the recognition of GG and aim to develop programs that enhance biliteracy, acknowledging the bilingual abilities of African American students (Boutte & Johnson, 2013; Wagner et al., 2022). Additionally, policy should be put in place to improve the representation of demographic and linguistic data related to GG to enhance the inclusion in the development of assessment and instructional materials.
Conflict of Interest
None declared.
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Article published online:
27 June 2025
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References
- Beaubrun, G. G. (2020). Talking Black: Destigmatizing Black English and Funding Bi-Dialectal Education Programs. Columbia Journal of Race and Law, 10(2); doi: 10.7916/cjrl.v10i2.6116
- Berry, J. (2016). Encourage Me: Introducing and Exploring Gullah Geechee Culture in the Classroom. Charleston County School District
- Berry, J. (2020). The Little Gullah Geechee Book: A Guide for the Come Ya J. Berry Collective, LLC; Amazon
- Bickerton, D. (1981). Roots of Language. Ann Arbor: Karoma Press
- Boutte, G., & Johnson, G. (2013). Funga Alafia: Toward welcoming, understanding, and respecting African American speakers' bilingualism and biliteracy. Equity & Excellence in Education, 46(3), 300–314
- Bryan, K. C., Rogers, K. G., & Grayson, T. L. (2022). Black youth and the fight for linguistic citizenship in the United States. In Wayne A. Lawrence (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Language and Youth Culture (pp. 424–438). Routledge
- Campbell, E. (2016). The African Gullah Connection. Excerpt from the documentary Talking Black in America. The Language and Life Project
- Carney, J. A. (2001). Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. Harvard University Press
- Green, L. (2002). African American English: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press
- Green, M. (2023). Gullah. Geechee. Educated: A Case Study on Teachers' Perception of Culturally Responsive Teaching. Dissertation. Charleston Southern University
- Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor Commission. (2012). Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor Management Plan. Prepared and published by the National Park Service, Denver Service Center
- Lippi-Green, R. (2012). English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States (2nd ed.). Routledge
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