Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis and Spondylarthritis

Abstract

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is a heterogeneous disorder affecting children < 16 years of age. The clinical heterogeneity translates to imaging, where no specific joint is affected. This article highlights a general imaging approach to JIA, using specific examples of the knee, hand, and wrist as the typical joints affected. We then focus on unique joints that are commonly affected by JIA: the temporomandibular joint, the joints of the upper cervical spine, and the sacroiliac joint. For these latter anatomical sites, regional anatomy and development, location-specific imaging considerations, and arthritis, treatment decision making, and potential differential considerations are reviewed. We highlight, where applicable, a multimodal approach to imaging using developed or developing standardized scoring systems.

Keywords

children - imaging - juvenile idiopathic arthritis - pediatric - sacroiliac joint - spondylarthritis

Publication History

Article published online:
31 March 2025

• References

• 1 Ravelli A, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet 2007; 369 (9563): 767-778
• 2 Thierry S, Fautrel B, Lemelle I, Guillemin F. Prevalence and incidence of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a systematic review. Joint Bone Spine 2014; 81 (02) 112-117
• 3 Manners PJ, Bower C. Worldwide prevalence of juvenile arthritis why does it vary so much?. J Rheumatol 2002; 29 (07) 1520-1530
• 4 Petty RE, Southwood TR, Manners P. et al; International League of Associations for Rheumatology. International League of Associations for Rheumatology classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: second revision, Edmonton, 2001. J Rheumatol 2004; 31 (02) 390-392
• 5 Zaripova LN, Midgley A, Christmas SE, Beresford MW, Baildam EM, Oldershaw RA. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: from aetiopathogenesis to therapeutic approaches. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2021; 19 (01) 135
• 6 Azouz EM. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: how can the radiologist help the clinician?. Pediatr Radiol 2008; 38 (3, Suppl 3): S403-S408
• 7 Mahmud SA, Binstadt BA. Autoantibodies in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and prognosis of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Front Immunol 2019; 9: 3168
• 8 Ključevšek D, Potočnik Tumpaj V, Gazikalović A. The role of radiography in diagnosing, monitoring and prognosing juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2024; 54 (04) 481-489
• 9 MacRae VE, Farquharson C, Ahmed SF. The pathophysiology of the growth plate in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006; 45 (01) 11-19
• 10 Zak M, Müller J, Karup Pedersen F. Final height, armspan, subischial leg length and body proportions in juvenile chronic arthritis. A long-term follow-up study. Horm Res 1999; 52 (02) 80-85
• 11 Simon D, Lucidarme N, Prieur AM, Ruiz JC, Czernichow P. Treatment of growth failure in juvenile chronic arthritis. Horm Res 2002; 58 (Suppl. 01) 28-32
• 12 Simon S, Whiffen J, Shapiro F. Leg-length discrepancies in monoarticular and pauciarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1981; 63 (02) 209-215
• 13 Sheybani EF, Khanna G, White AJ, Demertzis JL. Imaging of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a multimodality approach. Radiographics 2013; 33 (05) 1253-1273
• 14 Johnson K. Imaging of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2006; 36 (08) 743-758
• 15 Hemke R, van den Berg JM, Nusman CM. et al. Contrast-enhanced MRI findings of the knee in healthy children; establishing normal values. Eur Radiol 2018; 28 (03) 1167-1174
• 16 Bag AK, Gaddikeri S, Singhal A. et al. Imaging of the temporomandibular joint: an update. World J Radiol 2014; 6 (08) 567-582
• 17 Ording Muller L-S, Humphries P, Rosendahl K. The joints in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Insights Imaging 2015; 6 (03) 275-284
• 18 Sudoł-Szopińska I, Herregods N, Doria AS. et al. Advances in musculoskeletal imaging in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Biomedicines 2022; 10 (10) 2417
• 19 Yang Y, Yuan X, Wang X, Tao R, Jiang T. Preliminary MRI-based investigation of characteristics and prognosis of knee bone marrow edema in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2022; 41 (06) 1793-1799
• 20 Gylys-Morin VM, Graham TB, Blebea JS. et al. Knee in early juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: MR imaging findings. Radiology 2001; 220 (03) 696-706
• 21 Nguyen JC, Lee KS, Thapa MM, Rosas HG. US evaluation of juvenile idiopathic arthritis and osteoarticular infection. Radiographics 2017; 37 (04) 1181-1201
• 22 Hemke R, Kuijpers TW, van den Berg JM. et al. The diagnostic accuracy of unenhanced MRI in the assessment of joint abnormalities in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Eur Radiol 2013; 23 (07) 1998-2004
• 23 Nusman CM, Rosendahl K, Maas M. MRI protocol for the assessment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis of the wrist: recommendations from the OMERACT MRI in JIA Working Group and Health-e-Child. J Rheumatol 2016; 43 (06) 1257-1258
• 24 Hemke R, Tzaribachev N, Barendregt AM, Merlijn van den Berg J, Doria AS, Maas M. Imaging of the knee in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2018; 48 (06) 818-827
• 25 Nusman CM, Lavini C, Hemke R. et al. Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of the wrist in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2017; 47 (02) 205-213
• 26 Nusman CM, Hemke R, Lavini C. et al. Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging can play a role in predicting flare in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Eur J Radiol 2017; 88: 77-81
• 27 Panwar J, Tolend M, Kirkhus E. et al. Reliability assessment of the OMERACT whole-body magnetic resonance imaging scoring system for juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2024; 66: 152437
• 28 Panwar J, Patel H, Tolend M. et al. Toward developing a semiquantitative whole body-MRI scoring for juvenile idiopathic arthritis: critical appraisal of the state of the art, challenges, and opportunities. Acad Radiol 2021; 28 (02) 271-286
• 29 Magni-Manzoni S. Ultrasound in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2016; 14 (01) 33
• 30 Brunner E, Ting T, Vega-Fernandez P. Musculoskeletal ultrasound in children: Current state and future directions. Eur J Rheumatol 2020; 7 (1, Suppl 1): S28-S37
• 31 Quesada-Masachs E, Lopez-Corbeto M, Moreno-Ruzafa E. Ultrasound in pediatric rheumatology: highlighting the differences with adults. Eur J Rheumatol 2022; 11 (03) S348-S357
• 32 Collado P, Vojinovic J, Nieto JC. et al; Omeract Ultrasound Pediatric Group. Toward standardized musculoskeletal ultrasound in pediatric rheumatology: normal age-related ultrasound findings. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2016; 68 (03) 348-356
• 33 Roth J, Jousse-Joulin S, Magni-Manzoni S. et al; Outcome Measures in Rheumatology Ultrasound Group. Definitions for the sonographic features of joints in healthy children. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2015; 67 (01) 136-142
• 34 Roth J, Ravagnani V, Backhaus M. et al; OMERACT Ultrasound Group. Preliminary definitions for the sonographic features of synovitis in children. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2017; 69 (08) 1217-1223
• 35 Rossi-Semerano L, Breton S, Semerano L. et al. Application of the OMERACT synovitis ultrasound scoring system in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a multicenter reliability exercise. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2021; 60 (08) 3579-3587
• 36 Collado P, Martire MV, Lanni S. et al; OMERACT Ultrasound Group. OMERACT international consensus for ultrasound definitions of tenosynovitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: systematic literature review and Delphi process. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2023; 75 (11) 2277-2284
• 37 Collado P, Naredo E, Calvo C. et al; ECO-JIA Study Group. Reduced joint assessment vs comprehensive assessment for ultrasound detection of synovitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2013; 52 (08) 1477-1484
• 38 Pradsgaard DØ, Fiirgaard B, Spannow AH, Heuck C, Herlin T. Cartilage thickness of the knee joint in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: comparative assessment by ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging. J Rheumatol 2015; 42 (03) 534-540
• 39 Spannow AH, Pfeiffer-Jensen M, Andersen NT, Herlin T, Stenbøg E. Ultrasonographic measurements of joint cartilage thickness in healthy children: age- and sex-related standard reference values. J Rheumatol 2010; 37 (12) 2595-2601
• 40 Pradsgaard DØ, Spannow AH, Heuck C, Herlin T. Decreased cartilage thickness in juvenile idiopathic arthritis assessed by ultrasonography. J Rheumatol 2013; 40 (09) 1596-1603
• 41 Jousse-Joulin S, Breton S, Cangemi C. et al. Ultrasonography for detecting enthesitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63 (06) 849-855
• 42 Weiss PF, Chauvin NA, Klink AJ. et al. Detection of enthesitis in children with enthesitis-related arthritis: dolorimetry compared to ultrasonography. Arthritis Rheumatol 2014; 66 (01) 218-227
• 43 Alis D, Erol BC, Akbas S, Barut K, Kasapcopur O, Adaletli I. Superb microvascular imaging compared with power Doppler ultrasound in assessing synovitis of the knee in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a preliminary study. J Ultrasound Med 2020; 39 (01) 99-106
• 44 Sun P, Tong Y, Xu X, Gao M, Shi J. Evaluation of synovial inflammation in juvenile idiopathic arthritis using superb microvascular imaging compared with power Doppler ultrasound. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2024; 42 (05) 1127-1134
• 45 Hemke R, Nusman CM, van der Heijde DMFM. et al. Frequency of joint involvement in juvenile idiopathic arthritis during a 5-year follow-up of newly diagnosed patients: implications for MR imaging as outcome measure. Rheumatol Int 2015; 35 (02) 351-357
• 46 Hemke R, Tzaribachev N, Nusman CM, van Rossum MAJ, Maas M, Doria AS. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee as an outcome measure in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: an OMERACT reliability study on MRI scales. J Rheumatol 2017; 44 (08) 1224-1230
• 47 Hemke R, van Rossum MA, van Veenendaal M. et al. Reliability and responsiveness of the Juvenile Arthritis MRI Scoring (JAMRIS) system for the knee. Eur Radiol 2013; 23 (04) 1075-1083
• 48 Doria AS, de Castro CC, Kiss MHB. et al. Inter- and intrareader variability in the interpretation of two radiographic classification systems for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2003; 33 (10) 673-681
• 49 Doria AS, Babyn PS, Feldman B. A critical appraisal of radiographic scoring systems for assessment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2006; 36 (08) 759-772
• 50 Karmazyn B, Bowyer SL, Schmidt KM. et al. US findings of metacarpophalangeal joints in children with idiopathic juvenile arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 2007; 37 (05) 475-482
• 51 Avenarius DF, Ording Müller LS, Rosendahl K. Erosion or normal variant? 4-year MRI follow-up of the wrists in healthy children. Pediatr Radiol 2016; 46 (03) 322-330
• 52 Stoll ML, Kau CH, Waite PD, Cron RQ. Temporomandibular joint arthritis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis, now what?. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2018; 16 (01) 32
• 53 Alomar X, Medrano J, Cabratosa J. et al. Anatomy of the temporomandibular joint. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 2007; 28 (03) 170-183
• 54 Helland MM. Anatomy and function of the temporomandibular joint. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1980; 1 (03) 145-152
• 55 Petscavage-Thomas JM, Walker EA. Unlocking the jaw: advanced imaging of the temporomandibular joint. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014; 203 (05) 1047-1058
• 56 Smartt Jr JM, Low DW, Bartlett SP. The pediatric mandible: I. A primer on growth and development. Plast Reconstr Surg 2005; 116 (01) 14e-23e
• 57 Bender ME, Lipin RB, Goudy SL. Development of the pediatric temporomandibular joint. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2018; 30 (01) 1-9
• 58 Abramowicz S, Simon LE, Susarla HK. et al. Are panoramic radiographs predictive of temporomandibular joint synovitis in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis?. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2014; 72 (06) 1063-1069
• 59 Inarejos Clemente EJ, Tolend M, Junhasavasdikul T. et al. Qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment of temporomandibular joint MRI protocols for juvenile idiopathic arthritis at 1.5 and 3.0T. Eur J Radiol 2018; 98 (98) 90-99
• 60 Friedman SN, Grushka M, Beituni HK, Rehman M, Bressler HB, Friedman L. Advanced ultrasound screening for temporomandibular joint (TMJ) internal derangement. Radiol Res Pract 2020; 2020: 1809690
• 61 Angenete OW, Augdal TA, Jellestad S, Rygg M, Rosendahl K. Normal magnetic resonance appearances of the temporomandibular joints in children and young adults aged 2-18 years. Pediatr Radiol 2018; 48 (03) 341-349
• 62 Patel K, Gerber B, Bailey K, Saeed NR. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis of the temporomandibular joint - no longer the forgotten joint. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2022; 60 (03) 247-256
• 63 Tolend M, Doria AS, Meyers AB. et al. Assessing the Reliability of the OMERACT Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis Magnetic Resonance Scoring System for Temporomandibular Joints (JAMRIS-TMJ). J Clin Med 2021; 10 (18) 4047
• 64 Chouinard A-F, Kaban LB, Peacock ZS. Acquired abnormalities of the temporomandibular joint. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2018; 30 (01) 83-96
• 65 Abramowicz S, Kim S, Prahalad S, Chouinard AF, Kaban LB. Juvenile arthritis: current concepts in terminology, etiopathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 2016; 45 (07) 801-812
• 66 Tolend MA, Twilt M, Cron RQ. et al. Toward establishing a standardized magnetic resonance imaging scoring system for temporomandibular joints in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2018; 70 (05) 758-767
• 67 Kellenberger CJ, Junhasavasdikul T, Tolend M, Doria AS. Temporomandibular joint atlas for detection and grading of juvenile idiopathic arthritis involvement by magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Radiol 2018; 48 (03) 411-426
• 68 Stoustrup P, Resnick CM, Abramowicz S. et al; Temporomandibular Joint Juvenile Arthritis Working Group. Management of orofacial manifestations of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: interdisciplinary consensus-based recommendations. Arthritis Rheumatol 2023; 75 (01) 4-14
• 69 Herman MJ, Pizzutillo PD. Cervical spine disorders in children. Orthop Clin North Am 1999; 30 (03) 457-466 , ix
• 70 Lustrin ES, Karakas SP, Ortiz AO. et al. Pediatric cervical spine: normal anatomy, variants, and trauma. Radiographics 2003; 23 (03) 539-560
• 71 Hemke R, Herregods N, Jaremko JL. et al. Imaging assessment of children presenting with suspected or known juvenile idiopathic arthritis: ESSR-ESPR points to consider. Eur Radiol 2020; 30 (10) 5237-5249
• 72 Reiter MF, Boden SD. Inflammatory disorders of the cervical spine. Spine 1998; 23 (24) 2755-2766
• 73 Swischuk LE. Anterior displacement of C2 in children: physiologic or pathologic. Radiology 1977; 122 (03) 759-763
• 74 Laiho K, Savolainen A, Kautiainen H, Kekki P, Kauppi M. The cervical spine in juvenile chronic arthritis. Spine J 2002; 2 (02) 89-94
• 75 Beukelman T, Patkar NM, Saag KG. et al. 2011 American College of Rheumatology recommendations for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: initiation and safety monitoring of therapeutic agents for the treatment of arthritis and systemic features. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63 (04) 465-482
• 76 Hospach T, Maier J, Müller-Abt P, Patel A, Horneff G, von Kalle T. Cervical spine involvement in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis—MRI follow-up study. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2014; 12: 9
• 77 Ključevšek D, Emeršič N, Toplak N, Avčin T. Clinical and MRI outcome of cervical spine lesions in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis treated with anti-TNFα drugs early in disease course. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2017; 15 (01) 38
• 78 Kotecki M, Gietka P, Posadzy M, Sudoł-Szopińska I. Radiographs and MRI of the cervical spine in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a cross-sectional retrospective study. J Clin Med 2021; 10 (24) 5798
• 79 Munir S, Patil K, Miller E. et al. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis of the axial joints: a systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy and predictive value of conventional MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014; 202 (01) 199-210
• 80 Salem KM, Radhakrishnan A, Behrbalk E, Boszczyk BM. The surgical management of atlanto-axial subluxation in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Eur Spine J 2016; 25 (07) 2108-2114
• 81 Egund N, Jurik AG. Anatomy and histology of the sacroiliac joints. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2014; 18 (03) 332-339
• 82 Puhakka KB, Melsen F, Jurik AG, Boel LW, Vesterby A, Egund N. MR imaging of the normal sacroiliac joint with correlation to histology. Skeletal Radiol 2004; 33 (01) 15-28
• 83 Herregods N, Maksymowych WP, Jans L. et al. Atlas of MRI findings of sacroiliitis in pediatric sacroiliac joints to accompany the updated preliminary OMERACT pediatric JAMRIS (Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis MRI Score) scoring system: Part I: Active lesions. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2021; 51 (05) 1089-1098
• 84 Bollow M, Braun J, Kannenberg J. et al. Normal morphology of sacroiliac joints in children: magnetic resonance studies related to age and sex. Skeletal Radiol 1997; 26 (12) 697-704
• 85 Broome DR, Hayman LA, Herrick RC, Braverman RM, Glass RB, Fahr LM. Postnatal maturation of the sacrum and coccyx: MR imaging, helical CT, and conventional radiography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998; 170 (04) 1061-1066
• 86 Weiss PF, Xiao R, Brandon TG. et al. Radiographs in screening for sacroiliitis in children: what is the value?. Arthritis Res Ther 2018; 20 (01) 141
• 87 Jaremko JL, Liu L, Winn NJ, Ellsworth JE, Lambert RGW. Diagnostic utility of magnetic resonance imaging and radiography in juvenile spondyloarthritis: evaluation of the sacroiliac joints in controls and affected subjects. J Rheumatol 2014; 41 (05) 963-970
• 88 Weiss PF, Brandon TG, Lambert RG. et al. Consensus-driven definition for unequivocal sacroiliitis on radiographs in juvenile spondyloarthritis. J Rheumatol 2023; 50 (09) 1173-1177
• 89 Goie The HS, Steven MM, van der Linden SM, Cats A. Evaluation of diagnostic criteria for ankylosing spondylitis: a comparison of the Rome, New York and modified New York criteria in patients with a positive clinical history screening test for ankylosing spondylitis. Br J Rheumatol 1985; 24 (03) 242-249
• 90 Fam AG, Rubenstein JD, Chin-Sang H, Leung FY. Computed tomography in the diagnosis of early ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Rheum 1985; 28 (08) 930-937
• 91 Devauchelle-Pensec V, D'Agostino MA, Marion J. et al; Study Group of Spondylarthritis. Computed tomography scanning facilitates the diagnosis of sacroiliitis in patients with suspected spondylarthritis: results of a prospective multicenter French cohort study. Arthritis Rheum 2012; 64 (05) 1412-1419
• 92 Diekhoff T, Hermann KGA, Lambert RG. Future of low-dose computed tomography and dual-energy computed tomography in axial spondyloarthritis. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2022; 24 (06) 198-205
• 93 Lambert RGW, Hermann KGA, Diekhoff T. Low-dose computed tomography for axial spondyloarthritis: update on use and limitations. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2021; 33 (04) 326-332
• 94 Ye L, Liu Y, Xiao Q. et al. MRI compared with low-dose CT scanning in the diagnosis of axial spondyloarthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2020; 39 (04) 1295-1303
• 95 Li X, Wang J, Li P, Zhuang S, Jiang S, Liu W. Accuracy of dual-energy computed tomography for bone marrow edema in the sacroiliac joint: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2024; 103 (01) e36708
• 96 Chen M, Herregods N, Jaremko JL. et al. Bone marrow edema in sacroiliitis: detection with dual-energy CT. Eur Radiol 2020; 30 (06) 3393-3400
• 97 Wu H, Zhang G, Shi L. et al. Axial spondyloarthritis: dual-energy virtual noncalcium CT in the detection of bone marrow edema in the sacroiliac joints. Radiology 2019; 290 (01) 157-164
• 98 Herregods N, Dehoorne J, Joos R. et al. Diagnostic value of MRI features of sacroiliitis in juvenile spondyloarthritis. Clin Radiol 2015; 70 (12) 1428-1438
• 99 Althoff CE, Feist E, Burova E. et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of active sacroiliitis: do we really need gadolinium?. Eur J Radiol 2009; 71 (02) 232-236
• 100 Weiss PF, Xiao R, Biko DM, Johnson AM, Chauvin NA. Detection of inflammatory sacroiliitis in children with magnetic resonance imaging: is gadolinium contrast enhancement necessary?. Arthritis Rheumatol 2015; 67 (08) 2250-2256
• 101 Otobo TM, Conaghan PG, Maksymowych WP. et al. Preliminary Definitions for Sacroiliac joint pathologies in the OMERACT Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis Magnetic Resonance Imaging Score (OMERACT JAMRIS-SIJ). J Rheumatol 2019; 46 (09) 1192-1197
• 102 Dornia C, Fleck M, Hartung W, Niessen C, Stroszczynski C, Hoffstetter P. Magnetic resonance imaging of the sacroiliac joints in patients with suspected spondyloarthritis—comparison of turbo spin-echo and gradient-echo sequences for the detection of structural alterations. Rofo 2015; 36 (02) 109-114
• 103 Wolharn L, Guggenberger R, Higashigaito K. et al. Detailed bone assessment of the sacroiliac joint in a prospective imaging study: comparison between computed tomography, zero echo time, and black bone magnetic resonance imaging. Skeletal Radiol 2022; 51 (12) 2307-2315
• 104 Schiettecatte E, Vereecke E, Jaremko JL. et al. MRI-based synthetic CT for assessment of the bony elements of the sacroiliac joints in children. Insights Imaging 2024; 15 (01) 53
• 105 Jans LBO, Chen M, Elewaut D. et al. MRI-based synthetic CT in the detection of structural lesions in patients with suspected sacroiliitis: comparison with MRI. Radiology 2021; 298 (02) 343-349
• 106 Krabbe S, Møller JM, Hadsbjerg AEF. et al. Detection of structural lesions of the sacroiliac joints in patients with spondyloarthritis: a comparison of T1-weighted 3D spoiled gradient echo MRI and MRI-based synthetic CT versus T1-weighted turbo spin echo MRI. Skeletal Radiol 2024; 53 (11) 2459-2468
• 107 Malik F, Weisman MH. Sacroiliitis in inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2024; 36 (04) 274-281
• 108 Karagöl C, Güngörer V, Ekici Tekin Z. et al. Clues for inflammatory diseases in the differential diagnosis of a child with sacroiliitis. Pediatr Int 2023; 65 (01) e15504
• 109 Weiss PF, Xiao R, Biko DM, Chauvin NA. Assessment of sacroiliitis at diagnosis of juvenile spondyloarthritis by radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, and clinical examination. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2016; 68 (02) 187-194
• 110 Weiss PF, Brandon TG, Aggarwal A. et al. Classification criteria for axial disease in youth with juvenile spondyloarthritis. Arthritis Rheumatol 2024; 76 (12) 1797-1808
• 111 Chen H-A, Chen C-H, Liao H-T. et al. Clinical, functional, and radiographic differences among juvenile-onset, adult-onset, and late-onset ankylosing spondylitis. J Rheumatol 2012; 39 (05) 1013-1018
• 112 Herregods N, Maksymowych WP, Jans L. et al. Atlas of MRI findings of sacroiliitis in pediatric sacroiliac joints to accompany the updated preliminary OMERACT pediatric JAMRIS (Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis MRI Score) scoring system: Part II: Structural damage lesions. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2021; 51 (05) 1099-1107
• 113 Ringold S, Angeles-Han ST, Beukelman T. et al. 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation Guideline for the Treatment of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis: Therapeutic Approaches for Non-Systemic Polyarthritis, Sacroiliitis, and Enthesitis. Arthritis Rheumatol 2019; 71 (06) 846-863
• 114 Chauvin NA, Xiao R, Brandon TG. et al. MRI of the sacroiliac joint in healthy children. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2019; 212 (06) 1303-1309
• 115 Herregods N, Jans LBO, Chen M. et al. Normal subchondral high T2 signal on MRI mimicking sacroiliitis in children: frequency, age distribution, and relationship to skeletal maturity. Eur Radiol 2021; 31 (05) 3498-3507
• 116 Herregods N, Lambert RGW, Schiettecatte E. et al. Blurring and irregularity of the subchondral cortex in pediatric sacroiliac joints on T1 images: incidence of normal findings that can mimic erosions. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2023; 75 (01) 190-197
• 117 Zejden A, Jurik AG. Anatomy of the sacroiliac joints in children and adolescents by computed tomography. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2017; 15 (01) 82
• 118 Lavi E, Gileles-Hillel A, Simanovsky N, Averbuch D, Wexler ID, Berkun Y. Pyogenic sacroiliitis in children: don't forget the very young. Eur J Pediatr 2019; 178 (04) 575-579
• 119 Cohen SA, Biko DM, Kaplan SL, Barrera CA, Russo ME, Nguyen JC. MRI Findings of infectious sacroiliitis in children: are there age-dependent differences?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2020; 214 (04) 923-929
• 120 Kang Y, Hong SH, Kim JY. et al. Unilateral sacroiliitis: differential diagnosis between infectious sacroiliitis and spondyloarthritis based on MRI findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2015; 205 (05) 1048-1055
• 121 Tatsumura M, Eto F, Nagashima K. et al. Features of sacral alar fatigue fractures in adolescent athletes with overuse. Sci Rep 2021; 11 (01) 8420
• 122 Stoev I, Powers AK, Puglisi JA, Munro R, Leonard JR. Sacroiliac joint pain in the pediatric population. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2012; 9 (06) 602-607
• 123 Fard SB, Mirghaderi SP, Moharrami A, Salimi M, Zarei M. Percutaneous sacroiliac screw fixation in a pediatric with unstable bilateral superior rami and sacral fracture-dislocation; a case report and review of the literature. Trauma Case Rep 2022; 40: 100657