Keywords
elderly - type 2 diabetes mellitus - severity of periodontitis
Introduction
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) has a significant financial impact on the society, the
health care system, and the general public. It imposes a considerable economic burden,
which most directly affects the patients in low- and lower-middle-income countries.[1] Age as a confounding factor or direct determinant of a disease is a key variable
in determining the diagnosis, etiology, and intervention in research related to caries
and periodontitis. Old age increases the risk of periodontitis caused by immune system
dysregulation, decreased type 1 collagen, and decreased wound healing response.[2]
Indonesia is one of the top five countries with the highest prevalence of DM. There
were 18 million DM patients in Indonesia in 2020, and this has doubled within 2 years.
The main complication of DM in the oral cavity is periodontitis.[3] Periodontitis is an infectious disease caused by specific bacteria in the dental
plaque biofilm. In susceptible individuals, it causes damage to the periodontal ligament
and alveolar bone.[4] The prevalence of periodontitis in the world population is around 20 to 50%, which
increases by 44% in older people. Patients with type 2 DM with severe periodontitis
have a three times greater mortality risk.[5] DM and periodontitis have a bidirectional relationship. Hyperglycemia causes the
formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which are highly oxidant compounds.
These bind to receptors for AGEs (RAGE) on the endothelium to cause oxidative stress
and disruption of the blood vessels of the periodontal tissue. When this happens,
inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrotizing factors-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6
(IL-6), and interleukin-1 (IL-1) are increased. These inflammatory mediators have
important effects on lipid and glucose metabolism, namely, as insulin antagonists,
which increase blood sugar levels, thereby exacerbating hyperglycemia in DM patients.[6]
Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease with the highest prevalence among
the elderly. The prevalence and severity of periodontitis increase with age.[7] The diagnosis of periodontitis is established based on the presence of a periodontal
pocket, often measured using probing depth (PD) and clinical attachment loss (CAL),
as well as the radiological examination of alveolar bone damage. Measurement of CAL
is the gold standard for periodontitis. CAL measurements are more accurate in representing
the history and progression of periodontitis than PD. It is commonly used in clinical
trials and epidemiological studies.[8] Periodontitis case definitions were established based on the case definition proposed
by the European Federation of Periodontology (EFP), American Association of Periodontology
(AAP), and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This case definition
has been widely accepted and used in both clinical and epidemiological studies. Respondents
were declared to have periodontitis if there was interdental CAL 2 in the teeth that
were not adjacent or if there was CAL ≥3 mm with PD greater than 3 mm in 2 or more
teeth. The severity of periodontitis is defined based on interdental CAL. Interdental
CAL 1 to 2 mm was considered mild, interdental CAL 2 to 4 mm was considered moderate,
and interdental CAL ≥5 mm was considered severe.[9]
Materials and Methods
Research Subject Determination
Respondents were selected from primary health centers and clinics in Yogyakarta using
a purposive sampling technique, namely, 263 type 2 DM patients aged ≥60 years s with
at least 6 teeth and experiencing periodontitis. The ethical feasibility of the research
was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and
Nursing, Gadjah Mada University.
Diabetes Mellitus Diagnosis
The diagnosis of DM in this study was made by examining the HbA1c levels. The HbA1c
value limit based on the American Diabetes Association (ADA) is ≥6.5%. The HbA1c examination
utilized the National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program (NSGP) technique, carried
out by a health analyst from the Yogyakarta CITO Laboratory.
Definition of Periodontitis Case
Periodontitis case definition was established by consensus in 2018 by the EFP and
the AAP in collaboration with the CDC, which is widely accepted and used. Probing
depth and CAL measurements were performed on all teeth (full mouth) using a standardized
periodontal probe (WHO's periodontal probe) on six surfaces of the examined dentition:
mesio-vestibular, vestibular, disto-vestibular, mesio-oral, oral, and disto-oral.[10] PD is the distance from the gingival margin to the bottom of the gingival sulcus
or periodontal pocket, while CAL is the distance from the cementoenamel junction (CEJ)
to the bottom of the periodontal sulcus or pocket.
The severity of periodontitis is defined based on interdental CAL (European Federation
of Periodontology, American Academy of Periodontology, Center of Disease Control and
Prevention, 2018):
-
Interdental CAL 1 to 2 mm (stage 1, mild).
-
Interdental CAL 2 to 4 mm (stage 2, moderate).
-
Interdental CAL ≥5 mm (stages 3 and 4, severe).
The examination was carried out by four dentists. Calibration and validation related
to PD and CAL measurements by the four dentists were conducted using audiovisual media
as well as 10 pictorial questions about probing the periodontal tissue and reading
the results, followed by a simulation of CAL and PD examination on the tooth model.
These observers measured the periodontal sulcus or pocket on the artificial tooth
and gums using a WHO periodontal probe. The results were analyzed using the Spearman
correlation test to determine the reliability of the measurements, with a correlation
coefficient of 0.76 (p = 0.01).
Oral hygiene was measured using the Simplified Oral Hygiene Index (OHI-S) and was
carried out by four dentists. Dental and oral hygiene status was divided into three
categories: good (0–1.2), moderate (1.3–3.0), and poor (3.1–6).
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis was used to quantify the severity of periodontitis
based on the following variables: age, education, occupation, smoking, oral hygiene,
and HbA1c levels. The obtained data are presented in statistical analysis section
[Table 1] and [Figs. 1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7].
Fig. 1 The proportion of periodontitis severity levels by age.
Fig. 2 The proportion of periodontitis severity by gender.
Fig. 3 The proportion of periodontitis severity level by occupation.
Fig. 4 The proportion of periodontitis severity level by education level.
Fig. 5 The proportion of periodontitis severity by smoking habits.
Fig. 6 The proportion of periodontitis severity by oral hygiene status.
Fig. 7 Periodontitis severity level based on average HbA1c value.
Table 1
Characteristics of respondents based on periodontitis severity
|
Characteristics
|
Periodontitis severity
|
|
Normal
|
Mild
|
Moderate
|
Severe
|
Total
|
|
Age (y)
|
|
60–65
|
25
|
8
|
14
|
82
|
129
|
|
66–69
|
8
|
1
|
11
|
38
|
58
|
|
70–75
|
6
|
1
|
13
|
30
|
50
|
|
76–79
|
2
|
0
|
6
|
9
|
17
|
|
80–85
|
1
|
0
|
3
|
5
|
9
|
|
Gender
|
|
Female
|
25
|
9
|
29
|
97
|
160
|
|
Male
|
17
|
1
|
18
|
67
|
103
|
|
Occupation
|
|
Retired
|
14
|
2
|
13
|
39
|
68
|
|
Farmer
|
3
|
0
|
4
|
11
|
18
|
|
Housewife
|
11
|
0
|
9
|
47
|
67
|
|
Entrepreneur
|
12
|
7
|
18
|
48
|
85
|
|
Laborer
|
2
|
1
|
3
|
19
|
25
|
|
Education level
|
|
None
|
5
|
2
|
9
|
22
|
38
|
|
Elementary School
|
12
|
4
|
13
|
53
|
82
|
|
Junior High School
|
7
|
0
|
7
|
20
|
34
|
|
Senior High School
|
8
|
3
|
11
|
44
|
66
|
|
Higher Education
|
10
|
1
|
7
|
25
|
43
|
|
Smoking Habit
|
|
Yes
|
39
|
9
|
43
|
149
|
240
|
|
No
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
15
|
23
|
|
OHI-S
|
|
Good
|
4
|
0
|
4
|
18
|
26
|
|
Moderate
|
27
|
7
|
35
|
101
|
170
|
|
Poor
|
11
|
3
|
8
|
45
|
67
|
Abbreviation: OHI-S, Simplified Oral Hygiene Index.
Result
Almost all of the study participants (221 people) with DM had periodontitis, 4.5%
having mild periodontitis, 21.3% having moderate periodontitis, and 74.2% having severe
periodontitis.
Discussion
Almost all respondents who suffered from DM in this study experienced periodontitis;
42 people (16%) did not experience periodontitis, and 221 people (84%) experienced
periodontitis with 4.5% of the study population suffering from mild periodontitis,
21.3% moderate periodontitis, and 74.2% severe periodontitis. The results of this
study indicated that most patients with type 2 DM suffered from severe periodontitis.
most common type of periodontitis at all levels of age, occupation, and education
([Figs. 2]
[3]
[4]). It was found most commonly among those aged 60 to 65 years, housewives, and those
with elementary education level with moderate or poor oral hygiene. DM and periodontitis
are chronic diseases that occur most commonly the elderly, especially those over the
age of 65 years.[11] DM risk factors are interactions between genetic and metabolic factors. Ethnicity,
family history of DM, and gestational history of DM, combined with older age, obesity,
unhealthy diet, physical activity and smoking, can increase the risk of DM.[12] Aging is associated with the incidence of periodontal disease. The severity of periodontal
disease in the elderly is caused by cumulative destruction rather than a result of
increased rate of destruction. Socioeconomic status, alcohol consumption, nutrition,
and stress levels are associated with periodontal status, although this relationship
has not been clearly established.[13] The prevalence of DM increases with age. Old age, obesity, and low activity are
risk factors for DM. The highest prevalence is in older men with high levels of education
and obesity.[14] One of the effects of aging and the use of drugs is xerostomia. Xerostomia has been
associated with increasing age, in line with the aging process, with a global prevalence
of 30% in those aged 65 years and above. Xerostomia causes a decrease in oral self-cleansing
and oral hygiene status, thereby increasing the risk factors of gingivitis and periodontitis.[15] Severe periodontitis is more common among respondents who do not smoke ([Fig. 5]). Most of the respondents in this study had quit smoking more than 5 years ago.
Smoking was not a significant risk factor for the incidence of periodontal attachment
loss over 5 years among South Australians aged ≥60 years.[11] Previous studies found smoking had a negative impact on periodontal health. Cross-sectional
and longitudinal studies revealed that increased smoking habits also increases the
risk of CAL and alveolar bone damage. Smokers who have stopped smoking for more than
2 years have a lower risk of CAL than current smokers. The odds ratio for developing
periodontitis disease in former smokers is 1.68, while in current smokers, it is 3.97.
The development of periodontal disease also depends on the smoking dose. In vitro
studies revealed changes in cytokine and proteolytic profiles in gingival sulcus fluid
and in Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in gingival fibroblast
tissue in smokers. However, until now, it has not been explained how the mechanism
of smoking can affect periodontal disease.[13] Age, gender, smoking, and level of oral hygiene are risk factors for periodontitis.
A previous study indicated a significant correlation between smoking habit and healing
time of apical periodontitis. Smoking may be a modulating factor that inhibits periapical
healing.[16] There is a statistically significant relationship between the sociodemographic factors
and behavioral habits in periodontal status, increasing the severity of periodontal
disease with decreasing socioeconomic levels, old age, tobacco use, and gender.[17]
Severe periodontitis was more common in respondents with moderate and poor oral hygiene
status ([Fig. 6]). Dentogingival plaque accumulation increases with age. Gingival recession and exposed
root surfaces are sites of plaque accumulation. The composition of the supragingival
bacterial plaque is almost the same as that of the normal flora in the oral cavity,
while the subgingival plaque is more dominated by Pseudomonas. The prevalence of Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia, Treponema denticola, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and Prevotella intermedia increased at the age of 60 to 75 years. Laboratory research demonstrated that with
increasing age there would be changes in the expression of proinflammatory mediators
and MHC II gene expression. These changes are related to the pathology of periodontal disease or antimicrobial
function.[7]
Severe periodontitis tends to occur in respondents with high HbA1c values (≥6.5; [Fig. 7]). The HbA1c test is accurate and easy to administer. It is an effective tool for
diagnosing DM, especially in low- to moderate-income countries with hard-to-reach
populations. The results are readily available. The HbA1c test has been approved for
the diagnosis of DM in most countries worldwide, although the cut-off value is still
debatable.[18] The criteria for diagnosing DM, according to the American Diabetes Association,
are HbA1c levels ≥6.5% or fasting plasma glucose levels ≥126 mg/dL or random plasma
glucose levels ≥200 mg/dL or patients with classic symptoms of hyperglycemia or hyperglycemia
crisis with random plasma glucose levels ≥200 mg/dL. The results of a systematic review
suggested that HbA1c and fasting blood glucose levels are equally effective screening
tools for detecting type 2 DM. Several studies revealed that HbA1c has less intraindividual
variation and can better predict micro- and macrovascular complications.[19] In relation to it, there is a relationship between the HbA1c value and the severity
of periodontitis; the higher the HbA1c value is, the higher the periodontitis severity
will be. It proves a relationship between poor glycemic control and the parameters
of periodontal disease. Odds ratios include 2.8 to 3.4 between type 2 DM patients
and nondiabetics. Furthermore, longitudinal studies revealed that the increased risk
of periodontal tissue damage in patients with type 2 DM compared to nondiabetics is
4.2.[13] Periodontitis affects the onset and development of DM disease.[20]
All prospective studies included in the systematic reviews reported a positive association
between high glucose levels and the onset and development of periodontitis. There
was an adequate 86% increase in the incidence or risk of developing periodontitis
in uncontrolled diabetes compared with non-DM or people with well-controlled DM. The
incidence of periodontitis in uncontrolled DM patients is 86%.[21] Previous research demonstrated that the prevalence of hyperglycemia was very high
in the elderly, which was around 12.4%, and the risk factors were a family history
of DM, obesity, and age.[22]
[23] Hyperglycemia can affect the migration and phagocytic activity of mononuclear and
polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) cells. Thus, although it is affected by the same
bacteria, periodontitis is more progressive in DM patients than in non-DM patients.[24] Alveolar bone loss or periodontal disease is one of the oral complications of DM.
The average overall alveolar bone loss prevalence is greater in diabetic patients
than in nondiabetic patients. Distribution of moderate and severe alveolar bone loss
is higher in diabetic patients than in nondiabetic patients.[25]
Good control of glycated glucose and serum glucose can reduce the level of periodontal
tissue damage. Moreover, the treatment of periodontitis impacts metabolic control
and reduction of systemic inflammation in patients with type 2 DM.[26]
[27]
Conclusion
Almost all respondents with type 2 DM had severe periodontitis. Severe periodontitis
being the most common category at all age levels, occupation, education and oral hygiene
status. The duration of smoking cessation of more than 2 years was an important aspect
of periodontitis in type 2 DM patients. The severity of periodontitis in this study
was likely caused by high HbA1c level.
