Acute Neurologic Manifestations of Systemic Immune-Mediated Diseases

Abstract

Systemic autoimmune diseases can affect the peripheral and central nervous system. In this review, we outline the common inpatient consultations for patients with neurological symptoms from rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, immunoglobulin G4–related disease, Behçet's disease, giant cell arteritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, microscopic polyangiitis, eosinophilic granulomatosis, polyarteritis nodosa, and ankylosing spondylitis. We discuss the symptoms, diagnostic strategies, and treatment options.

Keywords

neurorheumatology - autoimmune diseases - rheumatic diseases - neurosarcoidosis - neuropsychiatric lupus

Publikationsverlauf

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
07. Oktober 2021

• References

• 1 Arnett FC, Edworthy SM, Bloch DA. et al. The American Rheumatism Association 1987 revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1988; 31 (03) 315-324
• 2 Aletaha D, Neogi T, Silman AJ. et al. 2010 Rheumatoid arthritis classification criteria: an American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Arthritis Rheum 2010; 62 (09) 2569-2581
• 3 Cianfoni A, Falcone C, Faustini F. et al. Rheumatoid leptomeningitis: magnetic resonance imaging and pathologic findings--a case report. J Neuroimaging 2010; 20 (02) 192-194
• 4 Tan HJ, Raymond AA, Phadke PP, Rozman Z. Rheumatoid pachymeningitis. Singapore Med J 2004; 45 (07) 337-339
• 5 Magaki S, Chang E, Hammond RR. et al. Two cases of rheumatoid meningitis. Neuropathology 2016; 36 (01) 93-102
• 6 Markenson JA, McDougal JS, Tsairis P, Lockshin MD, Christian CL. Rheumatoid meningitis: a localized immune process. Ann Intern Med 1979; 90 (05) 786-789
• 7 Nissen MS, Nilsson AC, Forsberg J. et al. Use of cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers in diagnosis and monitoring of rheumatoid meningitis. Front Neurol 2019; 10: 666-666
• 8 Kato T, Hoshi K, Sekijima Y. et al. Rheumatoid meningitis: an autopsy report and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol 2003; 22 (06) 475-480
• 9 Choi S-J, Ho Park Y, Kim JA, Han JH, Choe G, Kim S. Pearls & Oy-sters: asymmetric meningeal involvement is a common feature of rheumatoid meningitis. Neurology 2017; 88 (12) e108-e110
• 10 Lee Ching C, Kenyon L, Berk M, Park C. Rheumatoid meningitis sine arthritis. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 328: 73-75
• 11 Parsons AM, Aslam F, Grill MF, Aksamit AJ, Goodman BP. Rheumatoid meningitis: clinical characteristics, diagnostic evaluation, and treatment. Neurohospitalist 2020; 10 (02) 88-94
• 12 Pellerin D, Wodkowski M, Guiot M-C. et al. Rheumatoid meningitis presenting with acute parkinsonism and protracted non-convulsive seizures: an unusual case presentation and review of treatment strategies. Front Neurol 2019; 10 (163) 163
• 13 Kishore S, Maher L, Majithia V. Rheumatoid vasculitis: a diminishing yet devastating menace. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2017; 19 (07) 39
• 14 DeQuattro K, Imboden JB. Neurologic manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2017; 43 (04) 561-571
• 15 Kumar A, Goel A, Lapsiwala M, Singhal S. Refractory rheumatoid vasculitis. Oxf Med Case Rep 2016; 2016 (11) omw071
• 16 Zolcinski M, Bazan-Socha S, Zwolinska G, Musial J. Central nervous system involvement as a major manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol Int 2008; 28 (03) 281-283
• 17 Tanemoto M, Hisahara S, Hirose B. et al. Severe mononeuritis multiplex due to rheumatoid vasculitis in rheumatoid arthritis in sustained clinical remission for decades. Intern Med 2020; 59 (05) 705-710
• 18 Guadalupe Loya-de la Cerda D, Avilés-Solís JC, Delgado-Montemayor MJ, Camara-Lemarroy CR, Galarza-Delgado DÁ. Isolated rheumatoid arthritis-associated cerebral vasculitis: a diagnostic challenge. Joint Bone Spine 2013; 80 (01) 88-90
• 19 Turesson C, Jacobsson L. Epidemiology of Extra-articular Manifestations in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Vol 33. Taylor & Francis;. 2004: 65-73
• 20 Scott DGI, Bacon PA. Intravenous cyclophosphamide plus methylprednisolone in treatment of systemic rheumatoid vasculitis. Am J Med 1984; 76 (03) 377-384
• 21 Puéchal X, Miceli-Richard C, Mejjad O. et al; Club Rhumatismes et Inflammation (CRI). Anti-tumour necrosis factor treatment in patients with refractory systemic vasculitis associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2008; 67 (06) 880-884
• 22 Puéchal X, Gottenberg JE, Berthelot JM. et al; Investigators of the AutoImmunity Rituximab Registry. Rituximab therapy for systemic vasculitis associated with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the AutoImmunity and Rituximab Registry. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2012; 64 (03) 331-339
• 23 Pereira PR, Viala K, Maisonobe T. et al. Sjögren sensory neuronopathy (Sjögren ganglionopathy): long-term outcome and treatment response in a series of 13 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95 (19) e3632-e3632
• 24 Zikou AK, Alamanos Y, Argyropoulou MI. et al. Radiological cervical spine involvement in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a cross sectional study. J Rheumatol 2005; 32 (05) 801-806
• 25 Whitcher JP, Shiboski CH, Shiboski SC. et al; Sjögren's International Collaborative Clinical Alliance Research Groups. A simplified quantitative method for assessing keratoconjunctivitis sicca from the Sjögren's Syndrome International Registry. Am J Ophthalmol 2010; 149 (03) 405-415
• 26 Shiboski SC, Shiboski CH, Criswell L. et al; Sjögren's International Collaborative Clinical Alliance (SICCA) Research Groups. American College of Rheumatology classification criteria for Sjögren's syndrome: a data-driven, expert consensus approach in the Sjögren's International Collaborative Clinical Alliance cohort. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2012; 64 (04) 475-487
• 27 Kuntzer T, Antoine JC, Steck AJ. Clinical Features and Pathophysiological Basis of Sensory Neuronopathies (Ganglionopathies). Vol 30. Hoboken: Wiley Subscription Services, Inc.; 2004: 255-268
• 28 Fauchais A-L, Magy L, Vidal E. Central and peripheral neurological complications of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Presse Med 2012; 41 (9, Pt 2): e485-e493
• 29 Mori K, Iijima M, Koike H. et al. The wide spectrum of clinical manifestations in Sjögren's syndrome-associated neuropathy. Brain 2005; 128 (Pt 11): 2518-2534
• 30 Perzyńska-Mazan J, Maślińska M, Gasik R. Neurological manifestations of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Reumatologia 2018; 56 (02) 99-105
• 31 Alexander EL, Malinow K, Lejewski JE, Jerdan MS, Provost TT, Alexander GE. Primary Sjögren's syndrome with central nervous system disease mimicking multiple sclerosis. Ann Intern Med 1986; 104 (03) 323-330
• 32 McCoy SS, Baer AN. Neurological complications of Sjögren's syndrome: diagnosis and management. Curr Treatm Opt Rheumatol 2017; 3 (04) 275-288
• 33 Terrier B, Launay D, Kaplanski G. et al. Safety and efficacy of rituximab in nonviral cryoglobulinemia vasculitis: data from the French Autoimmunity and Rituximab registry. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2010; 62 (12) 1787-1795
• 34 Pijpe J, van Imhoff GW, Spijkervet FKL. et al. Rituximab treatment in patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome: an open-label phase II study. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 52 (09) 2740-2750
• 35 Mori K, Koike H, Misu K, Hattori N, Ichimura M, Sobue G. Spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates sensory neuronal involvement and clinical severity in neuronopathy associated with Sjögren's syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001; 71 (04) 488-492
• 36 Berkowitz AL, Samuels MA. The neurology of Sjogren's syndrome and the rheumatology of peripheral neuropathy and myelitis. Pract Neurol 2014; 14 (01) 14-22
• 37 Rist S, Sellam J, Hachulla E. et al; Club Rhumatismes et Inflammation. Experience of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in neuropathy associated with primary Sjögren's syndrome: a national multicentric retrospective study. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63 (09) 1339-1344
• 38 Chen WH, Yeh JH, Chiu HC. Plasmapheresis in the treatment of ataxic sensory neuropathy associated with Sjögren's syndrome. Eur Neurol 2001; 45 (04) 270-274
• 39 Jarius S, Jacobi C, de Seze J. et al. Frequency and syndrome specificity of antibodies to aquaporin-4 in neurological patients with rheumatic disorders. Mult Scler 2011; 17 (09) 1067-1073
• 40 Carvalho DC, Tironi TS, Freitas DS, Kleinpaul R, Talim NC, Lana-Peixoto MA. Sjögren syndrome and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder co-exist in a common autoimmune milieu. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2014; 72 (08) 619-624
• 41 Tang W-Q, Wei S-H. Primary Sjögren's syndrome related optic neuritis. Int J Ophthalmol 2013; 6 (06) 888-891
• 42 Maggi P, Absinta M, Sati P. et al. The “central vein sign” in patients with diagnostic “red flags” for multiple sclerosis: a prospective multicenter 3T study. Mult Scler 2020; 26 (04) 421-432
• 43 Pittock SJ, Lennon VA, de Seze J. et al. Neuromyelitis optica and non organ-specific autoimmunity. Arch Neurol 2008; 65 (01) 78-83
• 44 Park J-H, Hwang J, Min J-H, Kim BJ, Kang E-S, Lee KH. Presence of anti-Ro/SSA antibody may be associated with anti-aquaporin-4 antibody positivity in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. J Neurol Sci 2015; 348 (1-2): 132-135
• 45 Iyer A, Elsone L, Appleton R, Jacob A. A review of the current literature and a guide to the early diagnosis of autoimmune disorders associated with neuromyelitis optica. Autoimmunity 2014; 47 (03) 154-161
• 46 Tobin WO, Weinshenker BG, Lucchinetti CF. Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis. Curr Opin Neurol 2014; 27 (03) 279-289
• 47 Kahlenberg JM. Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder as an initial presentation of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2011; 40 (04) 343-348
• 48 Rossi R, Valeria Saddi M. Subacute aseptic meningitis as neurological manifestation of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2006; 108 (07) 688-691
• 49 Hirohata M, Yasukawa Y, Ishida C, Komai K, Yamada M. Reversible cortical lesions in primary Sjögren's syndrome presenting with meningoencephalitis as an initial manifestation. J Neurol Sci 2005; 232 (1-2): 111-113
• 50 The American College of Rheumatology nomenclature and case definitions for neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes. Arthritis Rheum 1999; 42 (04) 599-608
• 51 Hanly JG, Kozora E, Beyea SD, Birnbaum J. Review: nervous system disease in systemic lupus erythematosus: current status and future directions. Arthritis Rheumatol 2019; 71 (01) 33-42
• 52 Bertsias GK, Ioannidis JPA, Aringer M. et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus with neuropsychiatric manifestations: report of a task force of the EULAR standing committee for clinical affairs. Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69 (12) 2074-2082
• 53 Schwartz N, Stock AD, Putterman C. Neuropsychiatric lupus: new mechanistic insights and future treatment directions. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2019; 15 (03) 137-152
• 54 Magro-Checa C, Zirkzee EJ, Huizinga TW, Steup-Beekman GM. Management of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: current approaches and future perspectives. Drugs 2016; 76 (04) 459-483
• 55 Bendorius M, Po C, Muller S, Jeltsch-David H. From systemic inflammation to neuroinflammation: the case of neurolupus. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19 (11) 3588
• 56 Faria R, Gonçalves J, Dias R. Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus involvement: Towards a tailored approach to our patients?. Rambam Maimonides Med J 2017; 8 (01) e0001
• 57 Unterman A, Nolte JES, Boaz M, Abady M, Shoenfeld Y, Zandman-Goddard G. Neuropsychiatric syndromes in systemic lupus erythematosus: a meta-analysis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2011; 41 (01) 1-11
• 58 Mikdashi J, Handwerger B, Langenberg P, Miller M, Kittner S. Baseline disease activity, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension are predictive factors for ischemic stroke and stroke severity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Stroke 2007; 38 (02) 281-285
• 59 Saadatnia M, Sayed-Bonakdar Z, Mohammad-Sharifi G, Sarrami AH. The necessity of stroke prevention in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Res Med Sci 2012; 17 (09) 894-895
• 60 Wiseman SJ, Ralston SH, Wardlaw JM. Cerebrovascular disease in rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke 2016; 47 (04) 943-950
• 61 Arkema EV, Svenungsson E, Von Euler M, Sjöwall C, Simard JF. Stroke in systemic lupus erythematosus: a Swedish population-based cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis 2017; 76 (09) 1544-1549
• 62 Ioannidis S, Mavridis M, Mitsias PD. Ischemic stroke as initial manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report and review of the literature. eNeurologicalSci 2018; 13: 26-30
• 63 Yurkovich M, Vostretsova K, Chen W, Aviña-Zubieta JA. Overall and cause-specific mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2014; 66 (04) 608-616
• 64 Rodrigues CEM, Carvalho JF, Shoenfeld Y. Neurological manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome. Eur J Clin Invest 2010; 40 (04) 350-359
• 65 Borba EF, Bonfá E. Long term beneficial effect of chloroquine diphosphate on lipoprotein profile in lupus patients with and without steroid therapy. J Rheumatol 2001; 28 (04) 780-785
• 66 Ruiz-Irastorza G, Cuadrado MJ, Ruiz-Arruza I. et al. Evidence-based recommendations for the prevention and long-term management of thrombosis in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients: report of a task force at the 13th International Congress on antiphospholipid antibodies. Lupus 2011; 20 (02) 206-218
• 67 Crowther MA, Ginsberg JS, Julian J. et al. A comparison of two intensities of warfarin for the prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003; 349 (12) 1133-1138
• 68 Finazzi G, Marchioli R, Brancaccio V. et al. A randomized clinical trial of high-intensity warfarin vs. conventional antithrombotic therapy for the prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with the antiphospholipid syndrome (WAPS). J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3 (05) 848-853
• 69 Appenzeller S, Cendes F, Costallat LTL. Epileptic seizures in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 2004; 63 (10) 1808-1812
• 70 Ramsey-Goldman R, Alarcón GS, McGwin G. et al; Profile Study Group. Time to seizure occurrence and damage in PROFILE, a multi-ethnic systemic lupus erythematosus cohort. Lupus 2008; 17 (03) 177-184
• 71 Huang X, Magder LS, Petri M. Predictors of incident seizure in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2016; 43 (03) 565-575
• 72 Andrade RM, Alarcón GS, González LA. et al; LUMINA Study Group. Seizures in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA LIV). Ann Rheum Dis 2008; 67 (06) 829-834
• 73 Hopia L, Andersson M, Svenungsson E, Khademi M, Piehl F, Tomson T. Epilepsy in systemic lupus erythematosus: prevalence and risk factors. Eur J Neurol 2020; 27 (02) 297-307
• 74 Ong M-S, Kohane IS, Cai T, Gorman MP, Mandl KD. Population-level evidence for an autoimmune etiology of epilepsy. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71 (05) 569-574
• 75 Schoonen WM, Thomas SL, Somers EC. et al. Do selected drugs increase the risk of lupus? A matched case-control study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2010; 70 (04) 588-596
• 76 Stern BJ, Krumholz A, Johns C, Scott P, Nissim J. Sarcoidosis and its neurological manifestations. Arch Neurol 1985; 42 (09) 909-917
• 77 Fritz D, van de Beek D, Brouwer MC. Clinical features, treatment and outcome in neurosarcoidosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Neurol 2016; 16 (01) 220
• 78 Culver DA, Ribeiro Neto ML, Moss BP, Willis MA. Neurosarcoidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 38 (04) 499-513
• 79 Zajicek JP, Scolding NJ, Foster O. et al. Central nervous system sarcoidosis--diagnosis and management. QJM 1999; 92 (02) 103-117
• 80 Stern BJ, Royal III W, Gelfand JM. et al. Definition and consensus diagnostic criteria for neurosarcoidosis: from the neurosarcoidosis consortium consensus group. JAMA Neurol 2018; 75 (12) 1546-1553
• 81 Hoyle JC, Jablonski C, Newton HB. Neurosarcoidosis: clinical review of a disorder with challenging inpatient presentations and diagnostic considerations. Neurohospitalist 2014; 4 (02) 94-101
• 82 Bathla G, Watal P, Gupta S, Nagpal P, Mohan S, Moritani T. Cerebrovascular manifestations of neurosarcoidosis: an underrecognized aspect of the imaging spectrum. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2018; 39 (07) 1194-1200
• 83 Leonhard SE, Fritz D, Eftimov F, van der Kooi AJ, van de Beek D, Brouwer MC. Neurosarcoidosis in a tertiary referral center: a cross-sectional cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95 (14) e3277-e3277
• 84 Lower EE, Broderick JP, Brott TG, Baughman RP. Diagnosis and management of neurological sarcoidosis. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157 (16) 1864-1868
• 85 Fujiwara K, Furuta Y, Fukuda S. Two cases of Heerfordt's syndrome: a rare manifestation of sarcoidosis. Case Rep Otolaryngol 2016; 2016: 3642735
• 86 Christoforidis GA, Spickler EM, Recio MV, Mehta BM. MR of CNS sarcoidosis: correlation of imaging features to clinical symptoms and response to treatment. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999; 20 (04) 655-669
• 87 Kidd DP, Burton BJ, Graham EM, Plant GT. Optic neuropathy associated with systemic sarcoidosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2016; 3 (05) e270
• 88 Judson MA. The clinical features of sarcoidosis: a comprehensive review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2015; 49 (01) 63-78
• 89 Shah R, Roberson GH, Curé JK. Correlation of MR imaging findings and clinical manifestations in neurosarcoidosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2009; 30 (05) 953-961
• 90 Krumholz A, Stern BJ. Chapter 21 - Neurologic manifestations of sarcoidosis. In: Biller J, Ferro JM. eds. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol 119. Elsevier; 2014: 305-333
• 91 Wengert O, Rothenfusser-Korber E, Vollrath B. et al. Neurosarcoidosis: correlation of cerebrospinal fluid findings with diffuse leptomeningeal gadolinium enhancement on MRI and clinical disease activity. J Neurol Sci 2013; 335 (1-2): 124-130
• 92 Tauhid S, Chu R, Sasane R. et al. Brain MRI lesions and atrophy are associated with employment status in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 2015; 262 (11) 2425-2432
• 93 Dorman J, Warrior L, Pandya V. et al. Neurosarcoidosis in a public safety net hospital: a study of 82 cases. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2019; 36 (01) 25-32
• 94 Murphy OC, Salazar-Camelo A, Jimenez JA. et al. Clinical and MRI phenotypes of sarcoidosis-associated myelopathy. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2020; 7 (04) e722
• 95 Zalewski NL, Krecke KN, Weinshenker BG. et al. Central canal enhancement and the trident sign in spinal cord sarcoidosis. Neurology 2016; 87 (07) 743-744
• 96 Flanagan EP, Kaufmann TJ, Krecke KN. et al. Discriminating long myelitis of neuromyelitis optica from sarcoidosis. Ann Neurol 2016; 79 (03) 437-447
• 97 Bathla G, Singh AK, Policeni B, Agarwal A, Case B. Imaging of neurosarcoidosis: common, uncommon, and rare. Clin Radiol 2016; 71 (01) 96-106
• 98 Voortman M, Drent M, Baughman RP. Management of neurosarcoidosis: a clinical challenge. Curr Opin Neurol 2019; 32 (03) 475-483
• 99 Bitoun S, Bouvry D, Borie R. et al. Treatment of neurosarcoidosis: a comparative study of methotrexate and mycophenolate mofetil. Neurology 2016; 87 (24) 2517-2521
• 100 Sodhi M, Pearson K, White ES, Culver DA. Infliximab therapy rescues cyclophosphamide failure in severe central nervous system sarcoidosis. Respir Med 2009; 103 (02) 268-273
• 101 Deshpande V, Zen Y, Chan JKC. et al. Consensus statement on the pathology of IgG4-related disease. Mod Pathol 2012; 25 (09) 1181-1192
• 102 Chan S-K, Cheuk W, Chan K-T, Chan JKC. IgG4-related sclerosing pachymeningitis: a previously unrecognized form of central nervous system involvement in IgG4-related sclerosing disease. Am J Surg Pathol 2009; 33 (08) 1249-1252
• 103 Regev K, Nussbaum T, Cagnano E, Giladi N, Karni A. Central nervous system manifestation of IgG4-related disease. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71 (06) 767-770
• 104 Zen Y, Nakanuma Y. IgG4-related disease: a cross-sectional study of 114 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 2010; 34 (12) 1812-1819
• 105 Wu A, Andrew NH, McNab AA, Selva D. IgG4-related ophthalmic disease: pooling of published cases and literature review. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2015; 15 (06) 27
• 106 Deschamps R, Deschamps L, Depaz R. et al. High prevalence of IgG4-related lymphoplasmacytic infiltrative disorder in 25 patients with orbital inflammation: a retrospective case series. Br J Ophthalmol 2013; 97 (08) 999-1004
• 107 Song YS, Choung H-K, Park S-W, Kim J-H, Khwarg SI, Jeon YK. Ocular adnexal IgG4-related disease: CT and MRI findings. Br J Ophthalmol 2013; 97 (04) 412-418
• 108 Wallace ZS, Carruthers MN, Khosroshahi A. et al. IgG4-related disease and hypertrophic pachymeningitis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2013; 92 (04) 206-216
• 109 AbdelRazek M, Stone JH. Neurologic features of immunoglobulin G4-related disease. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2017; 43 (04) 621-631
• 110 Vakrakou AG, Evangelopoulos M-E, Boutzios G. et al. Recurrent myelitis and asymptomatic hypophysitis in IgG4-related disease: case-based review. Rheumatol Int 2020; 40 (02) 337-343
• 111 Shimatsu A, Oki Y, Fujisawa I, Sano T. Pituitary and stalk lesions (infundibulo-hypophysitis) associated with immunoglobulin G4-related systemic disease: an emerging clinical entity. Endocr J 2009; 56 (09) 1033-1041
• 112 Bando H, Iguchi G, Fukuoka H. et al. The prevalence of IgG4-related hypophysitis in 170 consecutive patients with hypopituitarism and/or central diabetes insipidus and review of the literature. Eur J Endocrinol 2013; 170 (02) 161-172
• 113 Ebbo M, Patient M, Grados A. et al. Ophthalmic manifestations in IgG4-related disease: clinical presentation and response to treatment in a French case-series. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017; 96 (10) e6205-e6205
• 114 Carruthers MN, Topazian MD, Khosroshahi A. et al. Rituximab for IgG4-related disease: a prospective, open-label trial. Ann Rheum Dis 2015; 74 (06) 1171-1177
• 115 Kalra S, Silman A, Akman-Demir G. et al. Diagnosis and management of neuro-Behçet's disease: international consensus recommendations. J Neurol 2014; 261 (09) 1662-1676
• 116 Akman-Demir G, Serdaroglu P, Tasçi B. The Neuro-Behçet Study Group. Clinical patterns of neurological involvement in Behçet's disease: evaluation of 200 patients. Brain 1999; 122 (Pt 11): 2171-2182
• 117 Bitik B, Tufan A, Sahin K. et al. The association between the parenchymal neurological involvement and posterior uveitis in Behçet's syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2016; 34 (6, Suppl 102): 82-85
• 118 Zeydan B, Uygunoglu U, Saip S. et al. Infliximab is a plausible alternative for neurologic complications of Behçet disease. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2016; 3 (05) e258
• 119 Uygunoğlu U, Siva A. Behçet's syndrome and nervous system involvement. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2018; 18 (07) 35
• 120 Ishido M, Horita N, Takeuchi M. et al. Distinct clinical features between acute and chronic progressive parenchymal neuro-Behçet disease: meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2017; 7 (01) 10196
• 121 Hirohata S, Kikuchi H, Sawada T. et al. Clinical characteristics of neuro-Behcet's disease in Japan: a multicenter retrospective analysis. Mod Rheumatol 2012; 22 (03) 405-413
• 122 Mohamed C, Najib K, Essaadouni L. Radiological findings in Behçet disease. Pan Afr Med J 2015; 20: 51-51
• 123 Addimanda O, Pipitone N, Pazzola G, Salvarani C. Tocilizumab for severe refractory neuro-Behçet: three cases IL-6 blockade in neuro-Behçet. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2015; 44 (04) 472-475
• 124 Aguiar de Sousa D, Mestre T, Ferro JM. Cerebral venous thrombosis in Behçet's disease: a systematic review. J Neurol 2011; 258 (05) 719-727
• 125 Krumb E, Lefebvre C, Peeters A, Hermans C. Cerebral venous thrombosis revealing Behçet's disease in a Moroccan patient: a case report and literature review. SAGE Open Med Case Rep 2018; 6: X18767053
• 126 Shi J, Huang X, Li G. et al. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in Behçet's disease: a retrospective case-control study. Clin Rheumatol 2018; 37 (01) 51-57
• 127 Chamorro A-J, Marcos M, Hernández-García I. et al. Association of allelic variants of factor V Leiden, prothrombin and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase with thrombosis or ocular involvement in Behçet's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev 2013; 12 (05) 607-616
• 128 Roriz M, Crassard I, Lechtman S. et al. Can anticoagulation therapy in cerebral venous thrombosis associated with Behçet's disease be stopped without relapse?. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2018; 174 (03) 162-166
• 129 Moghaddassi M, Togha M, Shahram F. et al. Headache in Behcet's disease: types and characteristics. Springerplus 2016; 5 (01) 1077
• 130 Vishwanath V, Wong E, Crystal SC. et al. Headache in Behçet's syndrome: review of literature and NYU Behçet's syndrome center experience. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2014; 18 (09) 445
• 131 Fountain EM, Dhurandhar A. Neuro-Behçet's disease: an unusual cause of headache. J Gen Intern Med 2014; 29 (06) 956-960
• 132 Samson M, Jacquin A, Audia S. et al. Stroke associated with giant cell arteritis: a population-based study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2015; 86 (02) 216-221
• 133 Hunder GG, Bloch DA, Michel BA. et al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990; 33 (08) 1122-1128
• 134 Maleszewski JJ, Younge BR, Fritzlen JT. et al. Clinical and pathological evolution of giant cell arteritis: a prospective study of follow-up temporal artery biopsies in 40 treated patients. Mod Pathol 2017; 30 (06) 788-796
• 135 Nesher G. Neurologic manifestations of giant cell arteritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2000; 18 (04, Suppl 20): S24-S26
• 136 Schmidt WA. Ultrasound in the diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2018; 57 (Suppl. 02) ii22-ii31
• 137 Ross M, Bursztyn L, Superstein R, Gans M. Multiple cranial nerve palsies in giant cell arteritis. J Neuroophthalmol 2017; 37 (04) 398-400
• 138 Baig IF, Pascoe AR, Kini A, Lee AG. Giant cell arteritis: early diagnosis is key. Eye Brain 2019; 11: 1-12
• 139 Stone JH, Tuckwell K, Dimonaco S. et al. Trial of tocilizumab in giant-cell arteritis. N Engl J Med 2017; 377 (04) 317-328
• 140 De Luna G, Terrier B, Kaminsky P. et al; French Vasculitis Study Group (FVSG). Central nervous system involvement of granulomatosis with polyangiitis: clinical-radiological presentation distinguishes different outcomes. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2015; 54 (03) 424-432
• 141 Holle JU, Gross WL. Neurological involvement in Wegener's granulomatosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2011; 23 (01) 7-11
• 142 de Groot K, Schmidt DK, Arlt AC, Gross WL, Reinhold-Keller E. Standardized neurologic evaluations of 128 patients with Wegener granulomatosis. Arch Neurol 2001; 58 (08) 1215-1221
• 143 Stone JH, Merkel PA, Spiera R. et al; RAVE-ITN Research Group. Rituximab versus cyclophosphamide for ANCA-associated vasculitis. N Engl J Med 2010; 363 (03) 221-232
• 144 Zheng Y, Zhang Y, Cai M, Lai N, Chen Z, Ding M. Central nervous system involvement in ANCA-associated vasculitis: what neurologists need to know. Front Neurol 2019; 9 (1166): 1166
• 145 Wolf J, Bergner R, Mutallib S, Buggle F, Grau AJ. Neurologic complications of Churg-Strauss syndrome--a prospective monocentric study. Eur J Neurol 2010; 17 (04) 582-588
• 146 Oiwa H, Mokuda S, Matsubara T. et al. Neurological complications in eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA): the roles of history and physical examinations in the diagnosis of EGPA. Intern Med 2017; 56 (22) 3003-3008
• 147 André R, Cottin V, Saraux J-L. et al; French Vasculitis Study Group (FVSG). Central nervous system involvement in eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg-Strauss): report of 26 patients and review of the literature. Autoimmun Rev 2017; 16 (09) 963-969
• 148 de Boysson H, Guillevin L. Polyarteritis nodosa neurologic manifestations. Neurol Clin 2019; 37 (02) 345-357
• 149 Hernández-Rodríguez J, Alba MA, Prieto-González S, Cid MC. Diagnosis and classification of polyarteritis nodosa. J Autoimmun 2014; 48-49: 84-89