Klinische Neurophysiologie 2010; 41(2): 116-124
DOI: 10.1055/s-0030-1252041
Originalia

© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Lebensstilabhängige Gesundheitsfaktoren, kognitives Altern und Demenz

Lifestyle-Dependent Health Factors, Cognitive Aging and DementiaN. Helm1 , S. Düzel2 , 3
  • 1Institut für kognitive Neurologie und Demenzforschung, Otto-von-Guericke Universität, Magdeburg
  • 2Klinik für Neurologie, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg
  • 3Deutsches Zentrum für neurodegenerative Erkrankungen Magdeburg
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
24 June 2010 (online)

Zusammenfassung

Obwohl die molekulare sowie biochemische Erforschung von dementiellen Erkrankungen wegweisende Erkenntnisse erbracht hat, zeigen klinische Studien bei der medikamentösen Behandlung eher enttäuschende Ergebnisse. Neue pharmakologische und immunologische Therapien scheinen diese Situation nicht dramatisch verändern zu können. Deshalb besteht die dringende Notwendigkeit, Präventions- und Interventionsstrategien zu entwickeln, die eine Stabilisierung und Reorganisation kognitiver Funktionen erlauben, um die kognitiven Abbauprozesse im Verlauf vom gesunden Altern zu leichten kognitiven Beeinträchtigungen (englisch: mild cognitive impairment; MCI) oder Demenz zu reduzieren und die Selbstständigkeit der älteren Bevölkerung sowie der Patienten für längere Zeit aufrecht zu erhalten. Aus diesem Grund besteht ein großes Interesse daran, mögliche (Risiko)Faktoren zu identifizieren, die den altersbedingten kognitiven Abbau sowie Demenzerkrankungen durch eine optimale gesundheitsbewusste Lebensweise hinauszögern oder einschränken. Dieser Übersichtsartikel stellt die in der aktuellen Literatur diskutierten modifizierbaren Risikofaktoren zusammen. Die Identifizierung einer optimalen Kombination multidimensionaler Lebensstilfaktoren hat eine immense Bedeutung für eine aktive lebenspannenübergreifende Prävention von Demenzerkrankungen.

Abstract

In spite of the progress that has been made on the molecular and biochemical basis of degenerative dementias, the results of clinical studies on pharmacological treatment are by and large disappointing. New pharmacological and immunological treatments, some of which are currently under clinical investigations, are not expected to dramatically change this situation. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop strategies for prevention and intervention that allow for the stabilisation and reorganisation of cognitive functions in order to slow down cognitive decline from healthy aging into mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia and to preserve independence and autonomy of our aging generation and patients for a longer time. Therefore much research is focused on the identification of modifiable lifestyle and health variables that are associated with the preservation of cognitive function in aging. This article reflects the current literature concerning the influence of health-related lifestyle variables on age-related cognitive impairment and/or the incidence of dementia. The identification of an optimal combination of multidimensional lifestyle factors is a very important aim to prevent or slow down the incidence of dementia.

Literatur

  • 1 Kral VA. Senescent forgetfulness: benign and malignant.  Can Med Assoc J. 1962;  86 257-260
  • 2 Crook T, Bartus RT, Ferris SH. Age associated memory impairment: proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change: report of a National Institute of Mental Health Work Group.  Dev Neuropsychol Rev. 1986;  2 261-276
  • 3 Rowe JW, Kahn RL. Human aging: usual and successful.  Science. 1987;  237 143-149
  • 4 Brayne C. The elephant in the room - healthy brains in later life, epidemiology and public health.  Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007;  8 233-239
  • 5 Vaillant GE, Mukamal K. Successful aging.  Am J Psychiatry. 2001;  158 839-847
  • 6 Craik FI, Byrd M, Swanson JM. Patterns of memory loss in three elderly samples.  Psychol Aging. 1987;  2 79-86
  • 7 Hedden T, Gabrieli JD. Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive neuroscience.  Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004;  5 87-96
  • 8 Petersen RC, Smith GE, Waring SC. et al . Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome.  Arch Neurol. 1999;  56 303-308
  • 9 Metzler-Baddeley C. A review of cognitive impairments in dementia with Lewy bodies relative to Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease with dementia.  Cortex. 2007;  43 583-600
  • 10 Fillit HM, Butler RN, O’Connell AW. et al . Achieving and maintaining cognitive vitality with aging.  Mayo Clin Proc. 2002;  77 681-696
  • 11 Salthouse TA. When does age-related cognitive decline begin?.  Neurobiol Aging. 2009;  30 507-514
  • 12 von Faber M, Bootsma-van der Wiel A, van Exel E. et al . Successful aging in the oldest old: Who can be characterized as successfully aged?.  Arch Intern Med. 2001;  161 2694-2700
  • 13 Phelan EA, Anderson LA, LaCroix AZ. et al . Older adults’ views of “successful aging” – how do they compare with researchers’ definitions?.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;  52 211-216
  • 14 Liang J, Shaw BA, Krause NM. et al . Changes in functional status among older adults in Japan: successful and usual aging.  Psychol Aging. 2003;  18 684-695
  • 15 Habib R, Nyberg L, Nilsson LG. Cognitive and non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal identification of successful older adults in the betula study.  Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2007;  14 257-273
  • 16 Petersen RC, Morris JC. Mild cognitive impairment as a clinical entity and treatment target.  Arch Neurol. 2005;  62 1160-1163 discussion 1167
  • 17 Qiu C, Kivipelto M, von Strauss E. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease: occurrence, determinants, and strategies toward intervention.  Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2009;  11 111-128
  • 18 Duzel E, Bunzeck N, Guitart Masip M. et al . NOvelty-related Motivation of Anticipation and exploration by Dopamine (NOMAD): Implications for healthy aging.  Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009; 
  • 19 Vaynman S, Gomez-Pinilla F. Revenge of the “sit”: how lifestyle impacts neuronal and cognitive health through molecular systems that interface energy metabolism with neuronal plasticity.  J Neurosci Res. 2006;  84 699-715
  • 20 Rowe JW, Kahn RL. Successful aging.  Aging (Milano). 1998;  10 142-144
  • 21 Baltes PBBM. Psychological perspectives on successful aging: the model of selective optimization with compensation. In: Baltes PB BM, ed. Successful Aging: Perspectives From the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1993: 1-27
  • 22 Abbott RD, White LR, Ross GW. et al . Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men.  Jama. 2004;  292 1447-1453
  • 23 Brubacher D, Monsch AU, Stahelin HB. Weight change and cognitive performance.  Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;  28 1163-1167
  • 24 Kramer AF, Erickson KI, Colcombe SJ. Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain.  J Appl Physiol. 2006;  101 1237-1242
  • 25 Murrell SA, Salsman NL, Meeks S. Educational attainment, positive psychological mediators, and resources for health and vitality in older adults.  J Aging Health. 2003;  15 591-615
  • 26 Hulse GK, Lautenschlager NT, Tait RJ. et al . Dementia associated with alcohol and other drug use.  Int Psychogeriatr. 2005;  17 (S 01) S109-S127
  • 27 Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Manson JE. et al . Primary prevention of coronary heart disease in women through diet and lifestyle.  N Engl J Med. 2000;  343 16-22
  • 28 Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ. et al . Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women.  N Engl J Med. 2001;  345 790-797
  • 29 Kurth T, Moore SC, Gaziano JM. et al . Healthy lifestyle and the risk of stroke in women.  Arch Intern Med. 2006;  166 1403-1409
  • 30 Floel A, Witte AV, Lohmann H. et al . Lifestyle and memory in the elderly.  Neuroepidemiology. 2008;  31 39-47
  • 31 Kivipelto M, Rovio S, Ngandu T. et al . Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 magnifies lifestyle risks for dementia: a population-based study.  J Cell Mol Med. 2008;  12 2762-2771
  • 32 Almeida OP, Norman P, Hankey G. et al . Successful mental health aging: results from a longitudinal study of older Australian men.  Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;  14 27-35
  • 33 Sachs-Ericsson N, Blazer DG. Racial differences in cognitive decline in a sample of community-dwelling older adults: the mediating role of education and literacy.  Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;  13 968-975
  • 34 Valenzuela MJ. Brain reserve and the prevention of dementia.  Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2008;  21 296-302
  • 35 Gordon BA, Rykhlevskaia EI, Brumback CR. et al . Neuroanatomical correlates of aging, cardiopulmonary fitness level, and education.  Psychophysiology. 2008;  45 825-838
  • 36 Springer MV, McIntosh AR, Winocur G. et al . The relation between brain activity during memory tasks and years of education in young and older adults.  Neuropsychology. 2005;  19 181-192
  • 37 Compton DM, Bachman LD, Brand D. et al . Age-associated changes in cognitive function in highly educated adults: emerging myths and realities.  Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2000;  15 75-85
  • 38 Christensen H, Batterham PJ, Mackinnon AJ. et al . Education, atrophy, and cognitive change in an epidemiological sample in early old age.  Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;  17 218-226
  • 39 Jorm AF, Rodgers B, Henderson AS. et al . Occupation type as a predictor of cognitive decline and dementia in old age.  Age Ageing. 1998;  27 477-483
  • 40 Wang HX, Karp A, Herlitz A. et al . Personality and lifestyle in relation to dementia incidence.  Neurology. 2009;  72 253-259
  • 41 Lakka TA, Bouchard C. Genetics, physical activity, fitness and health: what does the future hold?.  J R Soc Promot Health. 2004;  124 14-15
  • 42 Cotman CW, Berchtold NC, Christie LA. Exercise builds brain health: key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation.  Trends Neurosci. 2007;  30 464-472
  • 43 Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF. Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition.  Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;  9 58-65
  • 44 Dustman RE, Ruhling RO, Russell EM. et al . Aerobic exercise training and improved neuropsychological function of older individuals.  Neurobiol Aging. 1984;  5 35-42
  • 45 Rikli RE, Edwards DJ. Effects of a three-year exercise program on motor function and cognitive processing speed in older women.  Res Q Exerc Sport. 1991;  62 61-67
  • 46 Hawkins HL, Kramer AF, Capaldi D. Aging, exercise, and attention.  Psychol Aging. 1992;  7 643-653
  • 47 Kramer AF, Hahn S, Cohen NJ. et al . Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function.  Nature. 1999;  400 418-419
  • 48 Madden DJ, Blumenthal JA, Allen PA. et al . Improving aerobic capacity in healthy older adults does not necessarily lead to improved cognitive performance.  Psychol Aging. 1989;  4 307-320
  • 49 Blumenthal JA, Emery CF, Madden DJ. et al . Long-term effects of exercise on psychological functioning in older men and women.  J Gerontol. 1991;  46 P352-P361
  • 50 Hill RD, Storandt M, Malley M. The impact of long-term exercise training on psychological function in older adults.  J Gerontol. 1993;  48 P12-P17
  • 51 Dik M, Deeg DJ, Visser M. et al . Early life physical activity and cognition at old age.  J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003;  25 643-653
  • 52 Rovio S, Kareholt I, Helkala EL. et al . Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease.  Lancet Neurol. 2005;  4 705-711
  • 53 Andel R, Crowe M, Pedersen NL. et al . Physical exercise at midlife and risk of dementia three decades later: a population-based study of Swedish twins.  J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;  63 62-66
  • 54 Laurin D, Verreault R, Lindsay J. et al . Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons.  Arch Neurol. 2001;  58 498-504
  • 55 Lytle ME, Vander Bilt J, Pandav RS. et al . Exercise level and cognitive decline: the MoVIES project.  Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2004;  18 57-64
  • 56 Karp A, Paillard-Borg S, Wang HX. et al . Mental, physical and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk.  Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2006;  21 65-73
  • 57 Larson EB, Wang L, Bowen JD. et al . Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older.  Ann Intern Med. 2006;  144 73-81
  • 58 Podewils LJ, Guallar E, Kuller LH. et al . Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study.  Am J Epidemiol. 2005;  161 639-651
  • 59 Ravaglia G, Forti P, Lucicesare A. et al . Physical activity and dementia risk in the elderly: findings from a prospective Italian study.  Neurology. 2008;  70 1786-1794
  • 60 Wang JY, Zhou DH, Li J. et al . Leisure activity and risk of cognitive impairment: the Chongqing aging study.  Neurology. 2006;  66 911-913
  • 61 Broe GA, Creasey H, Jorm AF. et al . Health habits and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in old age: a prospective study on the effects of exercise, smoking and alcohol consumption.  Aust N Z J Public Health. 1998;  22 621-623
  • 62 Wilson RS, Bennett DA, Bienias JL. et al . Cognitive activity and incident AD in a population-based sample of older persons.  Neurology. 2002;  59 1910-1914
  • 63 Yaffe K, Barnes D, Nevitt M. et al . A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: women who walk.  Arch Intern Med. 2001;  161 1703-1708
  • 64 van Praag H. Exercise and the brain: something to chew on.  Trends Neurosci. 2009;  32 283-290
  • 65 Shimamura AP, Berry JM, Mangels JA. et al . Memory and cognitive abilities in university professors: Evidence for Successful Aging.  Psychological Science. 1995;  271-277
  • 66 Milgram NW, Siwak-Tapp CT, Araujo J. et al . Neuroprotective effects of cognitive enrichment.  Ageing Res Rev. 2006;  5 354-369
  • 67 Fritsch T, Smyth KA, Debanne SM. et al . Participation in novelty-seeking leisure activities and Alzheimer's disease.  J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2005;  18 134-141
  • 68 Brown J, Cooper-Kuhn CM, Kempermann G. et al . Enriched environment and physical activity stimulate hippocampal but not olfactory bulb neurogenesis.  Eur J Neurosci. 2003;  17 2042-2046
  • 69 Kempermann G, Kuhn HG, Gage FH. More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment.  Nature. 1997;  386 493-495
  • 70 Briones TL, Klintsova AY, Greenough WT. Stability of synaptic plasticity in the adult rat visual cortex induced by complex environment exposure.  Brain Res. 2004;  1018 130-135
  • 71 Cracchiolo JR, Mori T, Nazian SJ. et al . Enhanced cognitive activity – over and above social or physical activity – is required to protect Alzheimer's mice against cognitive impairment, reduce Abeta deposition, and increase synaptic immunoreactivity.  Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2007;  88 277-294
  • 72 Costa DA, Cracchiolo JR, Bachstetter AD. et al . Enrichment improves cognition in AD mice by amyloid-related and unrelated mechanisms.  Neurobiol Aging. 2007;  28 831-844
  • 73 Bennett DA, Schneider JA, Tang Y. et al . The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer's disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: a longitudinal cohort study.  Lancet Neurol. 2006;  5 406-412
  • 74 Holtzman RE, Rebok GW, Saczynski JS. et al . Social network characteristics and cognition in middle-aged and older adults.  J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2004;  59 P278-P284
  • 75 Fratiglioni L, Wang HX, Ericsson K. et al . Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study.  Lancet. 2000;  355 1315-1319
  • 76 Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Wilson RS. et al . Social resources and cognitive decline in a population of older African Americans and whites.  Neurology. 2004;  63 2322-2326
  • 77 Wang HX, Karp A, Winblad B. et al . Late-life engagement in social and leisure activities is associated with a decreased risk of dementia: a longitudinal study from the Kungsholmen project.  Am J Epidemiol. 2002;  155 1081-1087
  • 78 Lovden M, Ghisletta P, Lindenberger U. Social participation attenuates decline in perceptual speed in old and very old age.  Psychol Aging. 2005;  20 423-434
  • 79 Gais S, Born J. Declarative memory consolidation: mechanisms acting during human sleep.  Learn Mem. 2004;  11 679-685
  • 80 Graves LA, Heller EA, Pack AI. et al . Sleep deprivation selectively impairs memory consolidation for contextual fear conditioning.  Learn Mem. 2003;  10 168-176
  • 81 McDermott CM, LaHoste GJ, Chen C. et al . Sleep deprivation causes behavioral, synaptic, and membrane excitability alterations in hippocampal neurons.  J Neurosci. 2003;  23 9687-9695
  • 82 Kang JE, Lim MM, Bateman RJ. et al . Amyloid-{beta} Dynamics Are Regulated by Orexin and the Sleep-Wake Cycle.  Science. 2009; 
  • 83 Schaie KW, Willis SL, Pennak S. An Historical Framework for Cohort Differences in Intelligence.  Res Hum Dev. 2005;  2 43-67
  • 84 Scarmeas N, Stern Y. Cognitive reserve and lifestyle.  J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003;  25 625-633
  • 85 Baltes PB, Baltes MM. Selective optimization with compensation. In: Baltes PB, Baltes MM, Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1990
  • 86 Lachman ME, Andreoletti C. Strategy use mediates the relationship between control beliefs and memory performance for middle-aged and older adults.  J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2006;  61 P88-P94
  • 87 Cacioppo JT, Petty RE, Feinstein JA. et al . Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in the need for cognition.  Psychological Bulletin. 1996;  119 197-253
  • 88 Peters R, Peters J, Warner J. et al . Alcohol, dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly: a systematic review.  Age Ageing. 2008;  37 505-512
  • 89 Middleton LE, Yaffe K. Promising strategies for the prevention of dementia.  Arch Neurol. 2009;  66 1210-1215
  • 90 Luchsinger JA. Adiposity, hyperinsulinemia, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease: an epidemiological perspective.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;  585 119-129
  • 91 Fillit H, Nash DT, Rundek T. et al . Cardiovascular risk factors and dementia.  Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2008;  6 100-118
  • 92 Yaffe K. Metabolic syndrome and cognitive disorders: is the sum greater than its parts?.  Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2007;  21 167-171
  • 93 Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. The age-dependent relation of blood pressure to cognitive function and dementia.  Lancet Neurol. 2005;  4 487-499
  • 94 Fitzpatrick AL, Kuller LH, Lopez OL. et al . Midlife and late-life obesity and the risk of dementia: cardiovascular health study.  Arch Neurol. 2009;  66 336-342
  • 95 Hughes TF, Ganguli M. Modifiable Midlife Risk Factors for Late-Life Cognitive Impairment and Dementia.  Curr Psychiatry Rev. 2009;  5 73-92
  • 96 Whitmer RA, Gustafson DR, Barrett-Connor E. et al . Central obesity and increased risk of dementia more than three decades later.  Neurology. 2008;  71 1057-1064
  • 97 Atti AR, Palmer K, Volpato S. et al . Late-life body mass index and dementia incidence: nine-year follow-up data from the Kungsholmen Project.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008;  56 111-116
  • 98 Dahl AK, Lopponen M, Isoaho R. et al . Overweight and obesity in old age are not associated with greater dementia risk.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008;  56 2261-2266
  • 99 Dahl A, Hassing LB, Fransson E. et al . Being overweight in midlife is associated with lower cognitive ability and steeper cognitive decline in late life.  J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;  65 57-62
  • 100 Chen X, Gawryluk JW, Wagener JF. et al . Caffeine blocks disruption of blood brain barrier in a rabbit model of Alzheimer's disease.  J Neuroinflammation. 2008;  5 12
  • 101 Xu G, Liu X, Yin Q. et al . Alcohol consumption and transition of mild cognitive impairment to dementia.  Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;  63 43-49
  • 102 Qiu C, De Ronchi D, Fratiglioni L. The epidemiology of the dementias: an update.  Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007;  20 380-385
  • 103 Solfrizzi V, Capurso C, D’Introno A. et al . Lifestyle-related factors in predementia and dementia syndromes.  Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;  8 133-158
  • 104 Panza F, Capurso C, D’Introno A. et al . Vascular risk factors, alcohol intake, and cognitive decline.  J Nutr Health Aging. 2008;  12 376-381
  • 105 Kalev-Zylinska ML, During MJ. Paradoxical facilitatory effect of low-dose alcohol consumption on memory mediated by NMDA receptors.  J Neurosci. 2007;  27 10456-10467
  • 106 Wang J, Ho L, Zhao Z. et al . Moderate consumption of Cabernet Sauvignon attenuates Abeta neuropathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.  Faseb J. 2006;  20 2313-2320
  • 107 Panza F, Capurso C, D’Introno A. et al . Alcohol drinking, cognitive functions in older age, predementia, and dementia syndromes.  J Alzheimers Dis. 2009;  17 7-31
  • 108 Anstey KJ, von Sanden C, Salim A. et al . Smoking as a risk factor for dementia and cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies.  Am J Epidemiol. 2007;  166 367-378
  • 109 Swan GE, Lessov-Schlaggar CN. The effects of tobacco smoke and nicotine on cognition and the brain.  Neuropsychol Rev. 2007;  17 259-273
  • 110 Purnell C, Gao S, Callahan CM. et al . Cardiovascular risk factors and incident Alzheimer disease: a systematic review of the literature.  Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2009;  23 1-10
  • 111 Harwood DG, Kalechstein A, Barker WW. et al . The effect of alcohol and tobacco consumption, and apolipoprotein E genotype, on the age of onset in Alzheimer's disease.  Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009; 
  • 112 Almeida OP, Garrido GJ, Lautenschlager NT. et al . Smoking is associated with reduced cortical regional gray matter density in brain regions associated with incipient Alzheimer disease.  Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008;  16 92-98
  • 113 Scarmeas N, Stern Y, Mayeux R. et al . Mediterranean diet, Alzheimer disease, and vascular mediation.  Arch Neurol. 2006;  63 1709-1717
  • 114 Solfrizzi V, Capurso C, D’Introno A. et al . Whole-diet approach and risk of chronic disease: Limits and advantages.  J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;  54 1800-1802
  • 115 Gillette Guyonnet S, Abellan Van Kan G, Andrieu S. et al . IANA task force on nutrition and cognitive decline with aging.  J Nutr Health Aging. 2007;  11 132-152
  • 116 Eskelinen MH, Ngandu T, Tuomilehto J. et al . Midlife coffee and tea drinking and the risk of late-life dementia: a population-based CAIDE study.  J Alzheimers Dis. 2009;  16 85-91
  • 117 Rosso A, Mossey J, Lippa CF. Caffeine: neuroprotective functions in cognition and Alzheimer's disease.  Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2008;  23 417-422
  • 118 Arendash GW, Mori T, Cao C. et al . Caffeine reverses cognitive impairment and decreases brain amyloid-beta levels in aged Alzheimer's disease mice.  J Alzheimers Dis. 2009;  17 661-680
  • 119 Seeman TE, Lusignolo TM, Albert M. et al . Social relationships, social support, and patterns of cognitive aging in healthy, high-functioning older adults: MacArthur studies of successful aging.  Health Psychol. 2001;  20 243-255
  • 120 Golomb J, Kluger A, Ferris SH. Mild cognitive impairment: historical development and summary of research.  Dialogues in clinical neuroscience. 2004;  4 351-367

Korrespondenzadresse

Sandra Düzel

Universitätsklinik für

Neurologie & Deutsches

Zentrum für Neurodegenerative

Er1krankungen

Leipziger Straße 44

39120 agdeburg

Email: sandra.duezel@med.ovgu.de

    >