Key words
Olea europaea L.
(Oleaceae)
- cutaneous leishmaniasis - oleocanthal -
in vitro and
in vivo antileishmanial effect - immunomodulation
Abbreviations
b. w.:
body weight
CDCl3
:
deuterated chloroform
CL:
cutaneous leishmaniasis
CPC:
countercurrent partition chromatography
CPE:
centrifugal partition extraction
DCM:
dichloromethane
EVOO:
extra virgin olive oil
HePC:
hexadecylphosphocholine (miltefosine)
HRP:
horseradish peroxidase
i. p.:
intraperitoneally
LDA:
limiting dilution assay
LN:
lymph node
m/z
:
mass-to-charge ratio
NSAID:
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
OD:
optical density
OLEO:
oleocanthal
s. c.:
subcutaneously
SDS:
sodium dodecyl sulfate
SLA:
soluble Leishmania antigen
TPF:
total phenolic fraction
UPLC:
ultra-performance liquid chromatography
VOO:
virgin olive oil
Introduction
CL is the most common clinical form of a widespread parasitic disease, with increasing
incidence, caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus [1].
Prevention through vaccination is not available since an effective human vaccine
does not yet exist and the main interventions consist of chemotherapeutic treatment.
The available drug arsenal
is limited and exhibits drawbacks, such as toxicity, poor efficacy, high cost,
and parasite resistance [2]. Thus, the development of new treatment alternatives is
an essential requirement that meets the WHOʼs response plan against leishmaniasis
[3]. Over recent years, the search for naturally occurring compounds with
pharmacological properties has been increased. Plant-derived products have been
studied for treating various diseases, including leishmaniasis [4].
Products from the olive tree (Olea europaea L., Oleaceae), the most characteristic tree in Mediterranean countries, have gained scientific
interest, since the overall health
beneficial action of VOO through the Mediterranean diet is well established [5]. Several studies have assigned the beneficial biological properties of VOO,
especially of EVOO, to its phenolic composition [6], [7]. Among the phenolic compounds of EVOO, OLEO, firstly documented in the 1990s,
has attracted significant scientific attention. OLEO is homologous with the NSAID
ibuprofen for both perceptual and anti-inflammatory features [8] and it has been
reported to exhibit various modes of action in reducing the occurrence of inflammatory
related diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases and cancer [9].
Moreover, it has been associated with in vitro antimicrobial properties [8]. Our previous studies with an OLEO-enriched crude extract (TPF) and other pure
natural agents, all derived from olive products, revealed their strong antileishmanial
and immunomodulatory properties in in vitro and in vivo systems [10], [11], [12]. Additionally, various other studies demonstrated medicinal products of the olive
tree that possess
antileishmanial properties [13], [14], enhancing the position of the olive tree as a promising source for antileishmanial
compounds.
In this study, we investigated, for the first time, the potential of pure OLEO to
be used as an antileishmanial agent. We evaluated its in vitro antileishmanial properties against
Leishmania major promastigotes and amastigotes as well as its in vivo efficacy in a murine experimental model of CL. We further revealed the immunomodulatory
properties of OLEO
and its ability to concomitantly eliminate Leishmania parasites and modify the hostʼs immunity towards a protective immune response in
a murine experimental model of CL.
Results
The antileishmanial activity of OLEO on L. major promastigotes and amastigotes was assessed by determining the IC50 (µg/mL) values using a resazurin-based cell viability
assay. OLEO inhibited the growth of promastigotes ([Fig. 1 a]) and amastigotes ([Fig. 1 b]), presenting IC50 values of 18.7
and 87 µg/mL, respectively. The standard reference drug HePC was used at 6.4 µg/mL
for promastigotes and 3.2 µg/mL for amastigotes, as was previously determined [11].
Fig. 1 Cell viability of L. major promastigotes and amastigotes exposed to OLEO. The antileishmanial effect of OLEO
was tested on L. major promastigotes (a)
and amastigotes (b) with a resazurin-based assay. Increasing concentrations of OLEO were added in tissue
culture plates containing either promastigotes or L. major-infected
J774A.1 macrophages and incubated at 26 °C for 60 h and at 37 °C under 5% CO2 humidified air for 48 h, respectively. OD was determined with an absorbance microplate
reader
(excitation: 570 nm, reference filter: 630 nm). Data are presented as mean values ± SD
of three independent experiments.
To evaluate the therapeutic potential of OLEO on the development of experimental CL,
genetically susceptible BALB/c mice were firstly infected s. c. with stationary phase
L. major
promastigotes. The applied dose of OLEO (5 mg/kg b. w.) and the i. p. route of
its administration were chosen according to relevant in vivo studies [15], [16], [17], [18]. Clinical evaluation of toxicity was performed prior to the first
administration and at weekly intervals during the administration period. To this
end, we assessed feeding and drinking behavior, abnormal behavior in “handling”, fur
condition, posture,
activity level, abnormal movements, gait abnormalities, and body weight and there
was no clinical evidence of OLEO-caused toxicity.
In order to record the inflammation progression at the injection site, the footpad
induration was monitored in all experimental animals once per week. The development
of footpad lesions was
monitored for up to 7 weeks postinfection ([Fig. 2]). The administration of OLEO promoted a significant and constant reduction of footpad
thickness, reaching 45%
compared to the control group of untreated mice, at 7 weeks postinfection ([Fig. 2]). It is noteworthy that HePC exhibited equal suppression and lesion reduction
compared to OLEO.
Fig. 2 Footpad induration throughout the treatment course. BALB/c mice were infected with
1 × 106 L. major promastigotes in the left hind footpad. Ten days later,
mice were either treated with OLEO (n = 6) (5 mg/kg b. w., 3 ×/week for 16 total
doses) or HePC (n = 6) (15 mg/kg b. w., 5 ×/week for 25 total doses) or left untreated
(n = 6). Footpad
thickness was monitored weekly. Data are presented as mean thickness ± SD. *Statistical
difference compared to control (+++ctrl) group of untreated mice.
The parasite burden was evaluated in draining popliteal LNs by an LDA [19] 3 weeks after the termination of treatment. As depicted in [Fig. 3], treatment with OLEO caused a significant fall (~ 1.6-fold) in parasite levels compared
to untreated mice. HePC reduced the parasite load even more efficiently compared to
OLEO (88 007 ± 27 243 vs. 124 523 ± 27 067, p = 0.047). Moreover, the weights
of draining LNs in OLEO-treated mice were significantly decreased compared to untreated
mice 3 weeks after the
termination of treatment (p = 0.024) ([Fig. 4]).
Fig. 3 Quantification of parasite burden in popliteal LNs. Parasite burden was estimated
by LDA 3 weeks after the termination of treatment. Each bar represents the mean ± SD
for
each experimental group (n = 6/group). *Significant difference among groups.
Fig. 4 Weights of draining popliteal LNs. Weights (n = 6/group) were measured 3 weeks after
the termination of treatment. Results are expressed as mean values ± SD. *Significant
difference among experimental groups.
At the same time point, the infected paws were processed for histochemistry and immunohistochemistry
analysis. The histopathological analysis revealed a pleomorphic inflammatory infiltrate
with non-vacuolated and vacuolated parasite-containing macrophages with extensive
necrotic areas surrounded by neutrophils in infected paws of OLEO-treated mice ([Fig. 5 a]), while untreated mice showed a diffuse infiltration of macrophages containing intact
parasites ([Fig. 5 a]). In the OLEO-treated mice, it was
also observed that focal aggregates of macrophages were intermixed with lymphocytes,
as strongly suggested by the intense presence of CD3+ cell infiltrates ([Fig. 5 b]) and the presence of CD20+ cells ([Fig. 5 c]). Moreover, in OLEO-treated mice, we detected pronounced mast cell degranulation,
predominantly
located in the superficial dermis and near granuloma formations ([Fig. 5 d]).
Fig. 5 Histopathological images of the infected paws from L. major-infected BALB/c mice 3 weeks after the termination of treatment with OLEO. BALB/c
mice were infected with
1 × 106 promastigotes in the left hind footpad and either treated with OLEO (5 mg/kg b. w.,
3 ×/week for 16 total doses) or HePC (15 mg/kg b. w., 5 ×/week for 25 total doses)
or left untreated (+++ ctrl). a Representative H&E staining of lesion tissues from untreated and OLEO-treated mice.
Multifocal necrotic granuloma formations with intense
macrophage infiltrate in OLEO-treated mice are observed versus untreated mice
(scale bar = 50 µm). b T-lymphocyte CD3+ infiltrate inside granuloma formation and (c) presence
of CD20+ cells in OLEO-treated mice (scale bar = 50 µm). d Mast cell degranulation located in the superficial dermis in OLEO-treated mice, as
indicated by Giemsa staining (scale
bars = 50 and 10 µm).
Plasma was collected 3 weeks after treatment termination for the definition of Leishmania-specific isotype antibody response. Our results showed that levels of IgG1 in OLEO-treated
mice were lower (1.6-fold) than untreated mice, while respective levels of IgG2a
were higher (1.7-fold) ([Fig. 6]).
Fig. 6 Determination of Leishmania-specific antibody titers. Mean reciprocal antibody titers are represented as box-and-whisker
plots showing the distribution of IgG1 and
IgG2a in plasma of BALB/c mice 3 weeks after the termination of treatment. The
horizontal line in the middle of each box indicates the median, whereas the top and
bottom borders of the box
mark the 90th and 10th percentile.
Spleens were collected in order to estimate the type of induced cellular immunity.
OLEO treatment significantly increased the proportion of CD4+-IL-12+-producing cells
in the spleen compared to untreated mice (p = 0.018) 3 weeks posttreatment termination
([Fig. 7]), while the proportions of CD4+ T lymphocytes that
expressed IFN-γ and IL-4 were equal.
Fig. 7 Determination of IL-12+-producing cells. The proportion of IL-12+-producing cells in the spleen was assessed by flow cytometry 3 weeks after the
termination of treatment. The results are expressed as mean values ± SD and
are presented as a bar diagram and visualized as zebra plots. *Statistically significant
differences compared to
the control group (+++ctrl) of infected and untreated mice.
For further clarification of the hostʼs induced adaptive immunity, the expression
of mRNAs encoding for IL-12b and IL-4 cytokines and Tbx21 and GATA-3
transcription factors were analyzed as indicators of Th1- and Th2-type immune
responses, respectively [20]. The IL-12b/IL-4 and Tbx21/GATA-3 gene
expression ratios in OLEO-treated mice were 3- and 2.4-fold upregulated, respectively,
compared to untreated mice (p = 0.050) ([Fig. 8 a, b]).
Fig. 8 Quantitative analysis of immune gene expression in splenocytes of BALB/c mice. The
expression of cytokine genes IL-12b and IL-4 (a) and transcription
factor genes Tbx21 and GATA-3 (b) were determined with real-time PCR. All expression levels were computed via the
ΔΔCt method. *Statistically significant
differences compared to the control group (+++ctrl) of infected and untreated
mice.
Discussion
Our research group developed an efficient separation process for the gram-scale isolation
of pure OLEO [21], [22]. This procedure
includes the initial CPE-based extraction of TPF from olive oil followed by chromatographic
isolation of pure OLEO from TPF using an orthogonal combination of preparative CPC
and HPLC
analysis. The use of olive oil as part of the extraction biphasic system in combination
with the state-of-the-art CPE/CPC technology makes the separation process green, efficient,
and capable
for pilot and industrial scale applications.
This study addresses, for the first time, according to our knowledge, the antileishmanial
effect of purified OLEO from EVOO, as demonstrated by in vitro and in vivo experiments.
OLEO exhibited an inhibitory effect in vitro against both the promastigote and intracellular amastigote forms of L. major parasites. These results are in accordance with our
previous studies, indicating an OLEO-enriched phenolic fraction with a powerful
inhibitory effect against L. major promastigotes and amastigotes [10].
Additionally, these data are in line with a recent study also demonstrating a
powerful inhibitory effect of another natural product, 6-gingerol, against L. major promastigotes [23]. Although our previous studies with an OLEO-enriched TPF showed that promastigotes
were more resistant compared to amastigotes [11],
in the current study, the results suggest the contrary. As other researchers have
suggested, the differences between the conditions of promastigotes and amastigotes
cultures in pH and serum
protein concentration can affect the availability of the tested drugs, therefore
resulting in higher IC50 values for the amastigote forms of the parasite [24].
The therapeutic potential of OLEO was determined in genetically susceptible BALB/c
mice infected with L. major, which constitutes a nonhealing model of CL, where the inadequate hostʼs
cells mediated immune response results in parasite persistence and chronic tissue
ulceration [25]. Various doses and routes of administration have been used in
different studies to assess the in vivo bioactivity of OLEO and negligible toxicity was reported [18], [26], [27], [28]. Our results indicated that OLEO-treated mice exhibited a remarkable reduction in
footpad thickness and parasite load compared
to the untreated group. In addition, the average weight of the infected draining
LNs was measured as a raw indicator of the parasite burden [19] and its decrease
in OLEO-treated mice was in accordance with the respective reduced parasite burdens,
demonstrating the reduced inflammatory effect at the site of infection. Recent scientific
evidence showed
suppressed footpad thickness in L. major- and L. amazonensis-infected mice using other plant-derived substances such as Sambucus ebulus aquatic extract and a coumarin
isolated from leaves of Calophyllum brasiliense, respectively [29], [30], as well as the Gossypium hirsutum extract,
which significantly decreases lesion size in L. major-infected mice [31].
The therapeutic potential of OLEO was further validated by histopathological data.
In the murine model of CL, the successful control of parasites depends on local granulomatous
inflammatory
responses at the site of infection and the subsequent Th1-dominated systemic antigen-specific
immune responses that control the progress of the infection [32]. Our
analysis corroborated the clinical characteristics of footpad thickness and demonstrated
OLEOʼs therapeutic efficacy. CD3+ central overexpression at the observed immature
granulomas support
the hypothesis of T cell-dependent responses detected in the lesions, which lead
up to granuloma assembly. The observed increased monocyte influx, macrophage activation,
and lysis at the
necrotic granulomatous areas, due to persistent local particulate stimuli, Leishmania parasites in our case, all contribute to parasitic clearance [33].
Moreover, the observed mast cell degranulation enhances the therapeutic potential
of OLEO since it has been reported that mast cells contribute to host defense against
Leishmania spp.
by actively taking up the parasite and by mounting effector responses for parasite
clearance [34]. Additionally, it has been shown that dermal mast cells are
required for the recruitment of macrophages during cutaneous granuloma formation
[35]. Moreover, there is a report stating that L. major-infected mast
cell-deficient Kit(W)/Kit(W-v) mice developed larger skin lesions compared to wild-type mice [32].
Our data suggest the induction of a mixed Th1/Th2-type immune response in BALB/c mice,
since both Th1-type (IL-12, INF-γ) and Th2-type (IL-4) cytokines are expressed, both Tbx21 and
GATA-3 transcription factors genes are expressed, and a mixed humoral response
is detected in the plasma. Nevertheless, the results reveal that OLEO is able to exert
immunomodulation, as it
favors the Th1-type immune response over Th2, which is crucial for the resolution
of the infection in this mixed immunity background. The higher IgG2a/IgG1 ratio that
was recorded after
treatment with OLEO is related with Th1 prevalence in CL [36]. The segregation of IgG2a and IgG1 isotypes has been extensively used as a surrogate
marker of
protective Th1 and exacerbating Th2 responses, respectively [37]. These findings are in accordance with our previous study where mice treated with
the
OLEO-enriched phenolic fraction also exhibited a higher IgG2a/IgG1 ratio [10]. The prevalence of Th1 immunity after treatment with OLEO was further validated
by
the induced IL-12 cytokine [38]. Furthermore, the elevated Tbx21/GATA-3 gene expression ratios in OLEO-treated mice also confirms the orientation of T cell
subpopulations towards the Th1-type response since it has been documented that
the expression of these transcription factors is strongly associated with Th1 and
Th2 polarization [20]. The immunomodulatory properties of OLEO have also been stated in other disease
models. OLEO inhibited LPS-mediated upregulation of proinflammatory signaling
molecules, including interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α, tumor necrosis factor-α, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [39].
Overall, this study suggests that OLEO induces, in vitro, an efficient killing of L. major parasites and favors the Th1-type immune response in L. major-infected BALB/c
mice. This research is the first comprehensive study conducted on the therapeutic
effect of OLEO as an antiparasitic drug. OLEO is introduced as a novel candidate for
alternative treatment of
CL. Our findings suggest the potential use of OLEO in future immunotherapeutic
strategies by challenging the status quo of todayʼs chemotherapy and advocating new
therapeutic protocols.
Material and Methods
Reagents and materials
The solvents n-hexane, n-heptane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, and water used for the extraction and isolation
procedures were of analytical grade and purchased from CARLO ERBA
Reagents. Acetonitrile, water, and formic acid used in UPLC-HRMS/MS analyses
were of LC-MS grade and purchased from Fisher Scientific. CDCl3 was used for 1H-NMR
experiments.
Selection of extra virgin olive oil
The EVOO used for the isolation of OLEO was freshly produced (January-February 2018)
from olives of the “Koroneiki” variety harvested in Crete, Greece. The selected EVOO
was found to be the
richest in OLEO during a preliminary analysis of several freshly EVOOs produced
from different varieties and in different areas of Greece. A specimen of the selected
EVOO was stored in the
herbarium of Division of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Faculty
of Pharmacy, NKUA (herbarium code: EVOO18-431_k-cr).
Isolation of pure oleocanthal from extra virgin olive oil
The isolation of pure OLEO from EVOO was achieved in a two-step separation process.
The first step included the extraction of TPF from EVOO using a liquid-liquid extraction
method. This
procedure includes several “extraction-recovery” cycles using a 300-mL CPE column
(FCPC Kromaton) and the biphasic system n-hexane/EVOO/ethanol/water at a ratio of 3/2/3/2 (v/v/v/v).
In each “extraction-recovery” cycle, 2.5 L of EVOO containing an organic feed
phase (mixing of 1 L of EVOO and 1.5 L of n-hexane) were pumped through 300 mL of extracting aqueous
phase (ethanol/water at a ratio of 3/2) in ascending mode at flow rate 60 mL/min
and a column rotation speed of 1000 rpm. The cycle was completed by switching the
operating mode from
ascending to descending and replacing the enriched TPF aqueous phase with a fresh
one. The procedure was repeated 7 times and a total of 7 L of EVOO were treated. The
collected
TPF-containing aqueous phases were combined and evaporated to dryness, resulting
in the recovery of 8.26 g of TPF.
The chromatographic isolation of OLEO included the initial fractionation of TPF by
CPC and treatment of the enriched OLEO fractions by preparative HPLC. The CPC fractionation
was run in a
preparative (1000 mL) column (FCPC Kromaton) using a series of four biphasic
systems [n-Hept/EtOAc/EtOH/water at ratios of 4/1/3/2, 3/2/3/2, 2/3/3/2, and 1/4/3/2 (v/v/v/v)]
in step
gradient elution-extrusion mode [22]. Eight grams of TPF were analyzed, leading to the recovery of 826 mg of OLEO-enriched
fractions. The preparative HPLC
purification was performed on a Supelco supelcosil TM LC-18 (Supelco Analytical)
preparative column using mobile phase mixtures of water and acetonitrile in gradient
elution [22]. An amount of 600 mg of the enriched fractions was analyzed and the peak of OLEO
was collected manually based on UV chromatograms monitored at 275 nm, resulting
in the recovery of 432 mg of pure OLEO. The purity (> 96%) and structure confirmation
of the isolated OLEO was achieved by UPLC-HRMS and NMR analysis ([Fig. 9]).
Fig. 9 Structure confirmation and purity evaluation of isolated OLEO using UPLC-HRMS (base
peak chromatogram, left) and NMR spectroscopy (1H-NMR spectrum, right).
Thin layer chromatography, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-HRMS, and NMR analysis
The CPC fractionation was monitored by TLC using silica gel 60 F254 aluminum plates
(Merck). The chromatograms were developed using DCM or mixture of DCM and MeOH in
different ratios. Spots
were visualized on UV at 254 and 366 nm and were visible after spraying with
sulfuric vanillin reagent [1 : 1 mixture of 5% (v/v) H2SO4 in MeOH and 10% (w/v) vanillin
in MeOH] and heating the plates at 120 °C for 1 min.
The purity of the OLEO-enriched CPC fractions as well the isolated OLEO were checked
by proton NMR experiments. The 1H-NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker Avance III 600
spectrometer (Bruker Biospin GmbH). The samples were diluted in 600 µL of CDCl3 and analyzed at 25 °C using standard Bruker micro programs.
For purity control of the isolated OLEO, an H-Class Acquity UPLC system (Waters, Milford)
coupled to an LTQ-Orbitrap XL hybrid mass spectrometer (Thermo Scientific) was also
used. An amount
of 100 µg of dry OLEO was dissolved in 1 mL of AcN : H2O (4 : 1, v/v) and chromatographed on a Fortis C18 column (2.1 m × 100 µm i. d., 1.7 µm
film thickness) while keeping the
column temperature stable at 40 °C. The elution method used was as follows: solvent
A – water acidified with 0.1% formic acid, solvent B – acetonitrile, gradient mode:
0 – 3 min 5% B,
3 – 21 min from 5 to 95% B, 21 – 23 min 95% B, 23 – 24 min from 95 to 5% B, and
24 to 30 min 5% B. The flow rate was 400 µL/min and the injection volume was 10 µL.
Electrospray ionization
was carried out in the negative ion mode using the following mass spectrometric
parameters: capillary temperature 350 °C; sheath gas 40 units; aux gas 10 units; capillary
voltage − 20 V; and
tube lens − 80 V. Data were recorded in full scan from 115 to 1000 m/z. All experimental events were controlled using the software Xcalibur v.2.2 (Thermo
Scientific).
Eukaryotic cell cultures
L. major (zymodeme LV39, strain MRHO/SU/59/P, isolation source: Rhombomys opimus, geographical isolation: USSR, ATCC No: 50 132) promastigotes were used and cultured
in tissue
flasks (Greiner) in complete RPMI-1640 medium (Biochrom). The Leishmania parasite strain was retained in a virulent state throughout a continuous passage
in susceptible BALB/c mice.
SLA was derived from 109
L. major stationary-phase promastigotes [12]. The immortalized macrophage cell line J774A.1 (ATCC No: TIB-67) was cultured in
tissue flasks (Greiner).
Cell viability assay
The in vitro antileishmanial effect of OLEO was evaluated on stationary-phase L. major promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes using a resazurin-based cell viability
assay
[40]. Promastigotes were seeded in 96-well tissue culture plates at a concentration of
1 × 106 parasites/well (Sarstedt) and increasing
concentrations of OLEO (2.5 to 150 µg/mL) were added in triplicate. HePC (Virbac)
was used as a reference drug at the appropriate IC50 value, as previously described [11]. Plates were incubated at 26 °C for 60 h and then resazurin solution (20 µg/mL)
(Sigma-Aldrich) was added. Plates were incubated until the observation of a
fluorescent red color in the negative control group (promastigotes cultured only
in the presence of medium).
The evaluation of the anti-amastigote activity of OLEO was performed in L. major infected-J774A.1 macrophages [40]. Macrophages were added in 96-well
plates at a concentration of 2.5 × 105 cells/well. The plates were incubated at 37 °C with 5% CO2 for 18 h to achieve adhesion. Then, macrophages were infected with
L. major stationary-phase promastigotes (15/1 ratio) for 48 h. Cells were then washed with
RPMI-1640 medium to remove non-internalized parasites and OLEO was added at various
increasing concentrations (2.5 to 200 µg/mL). Leishmania-infected macrophages cultured only in the presence of complete RPMI-1640 medium were
used as the negative control group. After
48 h of treatment at 37 °C and 5% CO2, macrophages were lysed with 0.01% SDS, and Schneiderʼs insect medium (Biosera) was
added. The plates were further incubated at 26 °C for
72 h to allow transformation of viable amastigotes into promastigotes and proliferation.
Resazurin solution (60 µg/mL) was added. Plates were incubated until the observation
of a fluorescent
red color in the negative control group. The ODs in both aforementioned procedures
were determined using an absorbance microplate reader at 570 nm (reference filter
at 630 nm).
The IC50 values were determined by point-to-point analysis with linear regression analysis
and estimation of the coefficient of determination (R2) and using the linear
y = ax + b equation (Microsoft Excel). This method assumes a linear relationship
in the entire dose-response curve, which is rarely the case, as it typically has a
sigmoidal shape. To employ
this method for proper IC50 calculation, it usually has to be combined with the logarithmic transformation of
one or both axes to ensure the proper conversion of the dose-response
curve into the linear approximation [40].
Animals and ethics statements
Laboratory animals (mouse strain is BALB/cOlaHsd, supplied by Envigo) were maintained
in specific pathogen-free conditions at the approved establishments of the Department
of Animal Models
for Biomedical Research in Hellenic Pasteur Institute (registered codes EL25BIOsup011,
EL25BIObr012, EL25BIOexp013). The animals, age-matched (6 – 8 weeks old) female BALB/c
mice (n = 18),
were housed at room temperature (22 ± 2 °C), relative humidity of 40 – 70%, and
a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle. All procedures complied to PD56/2013 and European Directive
2010/63/EU for
welfare and ethical use of laboratory animals based on 3 + 1Rs and the guidelines
of PREPARE and ARRIVEs, were approved by the Institutional Protocols Evaluation Committee,
and were
performed under the licensed protocol with registered code 6380/11 – 12 – 2017
(date of approval; December 11, 2017) by the Official Veterinary Authorities of Attica
Prefecture.
Murine experimental model of cutaneous leishmaniasis and treatment schedule
Mice were infected s. c. with 1 × 106 L. major stationary-phase promastigotes at the left hind footpad. Ten days postinfection,
mice were randomly assigned to three
groups, OLEO-treated, HePC-treated, and untreated mice (control group). OLEO-treated
mice received i. p. OLEO, 5 mg/kg b. w., every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for 16
doses in total.
HePC-treated mice received the reference drug HePC by oral gavage (per os) from
Monday to Friday, at 15 mg/kg b. w., for 25 doses in total.
Monitoring of the infection progress
The thickness of the lesions at the injection site (left footpad) was monitored each
week and recorded up to the end of the experiment. The increase of footpad thickness
(mm) compared to
the uninfected contralateral footpad was evaluated for all experimental groups
using a dial gauge caliper (Mitutoyo).
Quantification of parasite burden by limiting dilution assay
The number of viable parasites in popliteal LNs was quantified by LDA [19]. Mice were sacrificed 3 weeks after the termination of treatment and popliteal LNs
were dissected and weighed. Next, they were homogenized in 5 mL Schneiderʼs insect
medium supplemented with 20% FBS (ThermoFisher Scientific), and homogenates were diluted
in 12 serial
2-fold dilutions and cultured in quadruplicate in sterile 96-well flat bottom
microtiter plates (Sarstedt) at 26 °C for 10 days. The motile parasites were determined
with an inverted
microscope (OLYMPUS). The number of viable parasites/mg of tissue for each experimental
group was calculated as mean and standard error of the highest dilution with live
detectable parasites
multiplied with the dilution factor whilst the total organ parasite burden was
calculated using the weight of the respective organs [19].
Histopathological analysis
Three weeks after the termination of treatment, infected paws were fixed in paraformaldehyde
solution 4% (overnight, RT), decalcified in EDTA 13% (pH 7.2) for 14 days, and embedded
in
paraffin. Serial paraffin sections (3 µm) were processed for histochemistry (H&E;
Giemsa) and immunohistochemistry analysis. Antigen retrieval was achieved by heating
sections in sodium
citrate buffer (10 mM, pH 6) at 95 °C for 15 min, followed by blocking of endogenous
peroxidase with 3% H2O2 in methanol and incubation with FBS (1/100 dilution) to
block nonspecific immunoglobulin binding. Sections were incubated with monoclonal
anti-CD20 and anti-CD3 (1/200; Agilent Dako) antibodies for 24 h at 4 °C, followed
by biotinylated secondary
antibodies and HRP-labeled avidin-biotin complex, and visualized using 3,3′-diaminobenzidine
(Vector Laboratories). Slides were counterstained with Mayerʼs hematoxylin, dehydrated,
cleared,
and mounted. Isotype controls for nonspecific antibody binding were used. The
tissue sections were analyzed by optical microscopy (Olympus BX-50 microscope) and
images were captured with an
Olympus DP71 microscope digital camera using Cell A imaging software (Soft Imaging
System GmbH).
Detection of Leishmania-specific IgG antibodies
The Leishmania-specific IgG isotype profile was determined with ELISA tests using SLA obtained from
L. major promastigotes. Three weeks after the termination of treatment,
plasma from all experimental mice was analyzed for the presence of IgG1- and
IgG2a-specific antibodies. Plates (Sarstedt) were coated with 5 µg/mL of SLA diluted
in carbonate buffer (15 mM
Na2CO3, 35 mM NaHCO3), pH 9.6, and incubated overnight at 4 °C. Plates were blocked with 2% bovine serum
albumin (AppliChem) and serial dilutions of plasma
samples (1/20 to 1/40 960) were added. Then, plates were incubated with biotinylated
anti-mouse IgG1 (500 ng/mL) or IgG2a (250 ng/mL) (AbDSerotec), and HRP streptavidin
solution (1/5000,
AbDSerotec) was added. Lastly, 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine substrate (ThermoFisher
Scientific) was added, and absorbance was read at 450 nm. Results are expressed as
antibody titer ± SD.
Antibody titer was determined as the maximum dilution in which the sampleʼs OD
value was above the cutoff level (twice the mean value of blank wells).
Intracellular cytokine staining by flow cytometry
Splenocytes were aseptically collected 3 weeks after the termination of treatment.
Then, 1 × 106 splenocytes were seeded in 24-well flat bottom plates (Sarstedt) and stimulated
overnight with SLA (25 µg/mL) at 37 °C and 5% CO2. Subsequently, cells were incubated with 2.5 µg/mL of brefeldin A (Fluka Chemie GmbH)
for 4 h and then fixed with 2% w/v
paraformaldehyde solution. The cells were permeabilized in permeabilization wash
buffer (PBS + 3% FBS + 0.5% saponin) and stained with monoclonal antibodies for 30 min
at 4 °C according to
manufacturerʼs instructions. Staining was performed with the following anti-mouse
monoclonal antibodies: FITC-CD4 (BD), PE-IL-4 (Biolegend), PE-IFN-γ (Biolegend), and PE-IL-12
(p40/p70) (BD). Control unstained samples were similarly processed for all the
above cases. Then, 20 000 cells/sample were analyzed on FACSCalibur (BD) and acquired
data were processed with
FlowJo V.10.0.8 software (BD). Splenocytes were gated on forward light scatter
and side light scatter to exclude debris and dead cells.
Gene expression analysis
Total mRNA was isolated from splenocytes obtained from all experimental mice 3 weeks
after the termination of treatment using an RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen). The mRNA concentrations
and
purities were determined with a NanoDrop2000 spectrophotometer (ThermoScientific)
and cDNA synthesis was performed with a PrimeScripr RT-PCR Kit (Takara). Real-time
PCR was performed using a
SaCycler-96 Real-Time PCR System (Sacace Biotechnologies) with a KAPA SYBR FAST
Universal Kit (KapaBiosystems). The specific primers for immune genes of interest
[T-box transcription factor
(Tbx21), trans-acting T cell-specific transcription factor (GATA-3), subunit 2 of interleukin 12 (IL-12b), interleukin-4 (IL-4), and glyceraldehyde
dehydrogenase of the 3-phosphatase (GAPDH)] were designed by Qiagen (QuantiTect Primer Assays; Qiagen). All qPCR experiments
were performed in three replicates, and non-template
controls and reverse transcription controls were additionally performed. The
PCR cycling conditions were as follows: 94 °C for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles at
94 °C for 10 s and 60 °C for
30 s. The expression level of GAPDH mRNA was used to normalize data of mRNA quantification,
while the average of healthy controls was used as a calibrator. All expression levels
were
computed via the ΔΔCt method [41].
Statistical analysis
The in vitro tests of anti-promastigote and anti-amastigote activities were performed in triplicate
and the assays were repeated at least three times in independent experiments. All
graphs were generated using GraphPad Prism 5 software (GraphPad Software, Inc.).
Statistical analysis was performed with IBM SPSS Statistics v.24 software (IBM) using
the two-sided
Mann-Whitney test. Statistical differences were assumed significant at the 0.05
level of confidence.
Contributorsʼ Statement
Conception and design of the work: K. Karampetsou, O. S. Koutsoni, F. Badounas, A.
Angelis, A. L. Skaltsounis, M. Halabalaki, E. Dotsika; data collection: K. Karampetsou,
O. S. Koutsoni, F.
Badounas, A. Angelis, G. Gogou, A. L. Skaltsounis, M. Halabalaki, E. Dotsika;
analysis and interpretation of the data: K. Karampetsou, O. S. Koutsoni, F. Badounas,
A. Angelis, G. Gogou, A. L.
Skaltsounis, M. Halabalaki, E.Dotsika; Statistical analysis: K. Karampetsou, O. S.
Koutsoni, G. Gogou; drafting the manuscript: K. Karampetsou, O. S. Koutsoni, F. Badounas,
A. Angelis, G.
Gogou; critical revision of the manuscript: A. L. Skaltsounis, M. Halabalaki,
E. Dotsika.
