Therapie der kaninen Parvovirose – Übersicht und aktuelle Erkenntnisse

Moira Gerlach; Anna-Lena Proksch; René Dörfelt; Stefan Unterer; Katrin Hartmann

doi:10.1055/a-1020-3341

Tierärztliche Praxis Ausgabe K: Kleintiere / Heimtiere, Table of Contents

Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2020; 48(01): 26-37
DOI: 10.1055/a-1020-3341

Übersichtsartikel

Therapie der kaninen Parvovirose – Übersicht und aktuelle Erkenntnisse

Therapy of canine parvovirus infection – review and current insights

Moira Gerlach

¹Akademie für Tierschutz, Neubiberg

,

Anna-Lena Proksch

²Klinik für Kleintiere, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen

,

René Dörfelt

³Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

,

Stefan Unterer

³Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

,

Katrin Hartmann

³Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

› Author Affiliations

Abstract

Zusammenfassung

Die kanine Parvovirose ist nach wie vor eine weltweit verbreitete und vor allem bei Welpen häufig auftretende Infektionskrankheit. Die Therapie erfolgt überwiegend symptomatisch und beinhaltet die Behandlung der akuten gastrointestinalen Symptome sowie die Behandlung und Prävention einer möglichen Sepsis aufgrund bakterieller Translokation. Neben der antibiotischen Behandlung und der essenziellen Flüssigkeitstherapie ist eine ausreichende antiemetische und analgetische Medikation sinnvoll. Weiterhin sollte eine möglichst frühzeitige enterale Ernährung angestrebt werden, da dies die Genesungszeit verkürzt. Die gezielte Modulation der intestinalen Mikrobiota kann die klinische Symptomatik reduzieren und möglicherweise langfristige Folgen, wie chronische Darmerkrankungen, verhindern. Eine antivirale Therapie mit dem rekombinanten felinen Interferon-Omega führte in mehreren Studien zu einer geringeren Mortalitätsrate und einer schnelleren Besserung der klinischen Symptome.

Abstract

Canine parvovirus infection remains to represent a worldwide and commonly occurring infectious disease leading to severe morbidity especially in puppies. The main therapeutic approach is primarily based on symptomatic treatment, especially addressing acute gastrointestinal signs as well as treating and preventing potential sepsis due to bacterial translocation. Besides antibiotic and essential fluid therapy, the use of efficient antiemetic and pain medication is required. In addition, early enteral nutrition should be attempted as this has been shown to be associated with a shorter time to recovery. Modulation of the intestinal microbiome could improve clinical signs and possibly aide in avoiding long-term sequelae such as chronic gastrointestinal disease. Treatment with recombinant feline interferon-omega resulted in a lower mortality and a more rapid improvement of clinical signs in several experimental and clinical studies and thus is considered to be effective.

Schlüsselwörter

CPV - kanines Parvovirus - Behandlung - Hund - antiviral - Interferon - intestinales Mikrobiom

Key words

CPV - canine parvovirus - treatment - dog - antiviral - interferon - intestinal microbiome

Full Text

References

Literatur
1 Alvillar BM, Boscan P, Mama KR. et al. Effect of epidural and intravenous use of the neurokinin-1 (NK-1) receptor antagonist maropitant on the sevoflurane minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) in dogs. Vet Anaesth Analg 2012; 39: 201-205
2 Appel MJ, Scott FW, Carmichael LE. Isolation and immunisation studies of a canine parvo-like virus from dogs with haemorrhagic enteritis. Vet Rec 1979; 105: 156-159
3 Arslan HH, Saripinar Aksu D, Terzi G. et al. Therapeutic effects of probiotic bacteria in parvoviral enteritis in dogs. Revue Méd Vét 2012; 163: 55-59
4 Balakrishnan A, Silverstein D. Shock fluids and fluid changes. In: Silverstein D, Hopper K. eds. Small Animal Critical Care Medicine. Philadelpia: Elsevier Saunders; 2014: 321-327
5 Batz MB, Henke E, Kowalcyk B. Long-term consequences of foodborne infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2013; 27: 599-616
6 Beal MW, Hughes D. Vascular access: theory and techniques in the small animal emergency patient. Clin Tech Small Anim Pract 2000; 15: 101-109
7 Beer KS, Silverstein DC. Controversies in the use of fresh frozen plasma in critically ill small animal patients. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2015; 25: 101-106
8 Bergmann M, Friedl Y, Hartmann K. Passive Immunisierung bei Hund und Katze. Tierärztl Prax Ausg Kleintiere 2016; 44: 287-292
9 Bersenas AM, Mathews KA, Allen DG. et al. Effects of ranitidine, famotidine, pantoprazole, and omeprazole on intragastric pH in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2005; 66: 425-431
10 Blais M-C, Bianco D, Goggs R. et al. Consensus on the rational use of antithrombotics in veterinary critical care (CURATIVE): domain 3 – defining antithrombotic protocols. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2019; 29: 60-74
11 Boscan P, Monnet E, Mama K. et al. Effect of maropitant, a neurokinin 1 receptor antagonist, on anesthetic requirements during noxious visceral stimulation of the ovary in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2011; 72: 1576-1579
12 Boyd CJ, Claus MA, Raisis AL. et al. Evaluation of biomarkers of kidney injury following 4 % succinylated gelatin and 6 % hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4 administration in a canine hemorrhagic shock model. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2019; 29: 132-142
13 Bragg RF, Duffy AL, DeCecco FA. et al. Clinical evaluation of a single dose of immune plasma for treatment of canine parvovirus infection. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012; 240: 700-704
14 Brown AJ, Otto CM. Fluid therapy in vomiting and diarrhea. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 653-675
15 Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F. et al. Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 125-139
16 Brunner C, Swango L. Canine parvovirus infection: effects on the immune system and factors that predispose to severe disease. Comp Contin Educ Pract Vet 1985; 7: 979-989
17 Burchell RK, Schoeman JP, Leisewitz AL. The central role of chloride in the metabolic acid-base changes in canine parvoviral enteritis. Vet J 2014; 200: 152-156
18 Butt AI, Khan BT, Khan A. et al. Ranitidine can potentiate the prokinetic effect of itopride at low doses – an in vitro study. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad 2017; 29: 554-558
19 Cariou M, Lipscomb VJ, Brockman DJ. et al. Spontaneous gastroduodenal perforations in dogs: a retrospective study of 15 cases. Vet Rec 2009; 165: 436-441
20 Chan DL, Freeman LM, Labato MA. et al. Retrospective evaluation of partial parenteral nutrition in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2002; 16: 440-445
21 Chandler ML, Guilford WG, Payne-James J. Use of peripheral parenteral nutritional support in dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000; 216: 669-673
22 Chiba T, Tokunaga Y, Ikeda K. et al. Effects of itopride hydrochloride and ranitidine in patients with functional dyspepsia: comparison between prokinetic and acid suppression therapies. Hepatogastroenterology 2007; 54: 1878-1881
23 Cocciolillo S, Collins SM. The long-term functional consequences of acute infectious diarrhea. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2016; 32: 1-6
24 Conner BJ. Treating hypoalbuminemia. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2017; 47: 451-459
25 Couto CG. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in dogs and cats. Vet Med 1999; 94: 547-553
26 Craft EM, Powell LL. The use of canine-specific albumin in dogs with septic peritonitis. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2012; 22: 631-639
27 De la Puente-Redondo VA, Siedek EM, Benchaoui HA. et al. The anti-emetic efficacy of maropitant (Cerenia) in the treatment of ongoing emesis caused by a wide range of underlying clinical aetiologies in canine patients in Europe. J Small Anim Pract 2007; 48: 93-98
28 De Mari K, Maynard L, Eun HM. et al. Treatment of canine parvoviral enteritis with interferon-omega in a placebo-controlled field trial. Vet Rec 2003; 152: 105-108
29 De Morais HA, Bach JF, DiBartola SP. Metabolic acid-base disorders in the critical care unit. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 559-574 x–xi
30 Decaro N, Buonavoglia C. Canine parvovirus– a review of epidemiological and diagnostic aspects, with emphasis on type 2c. Vet Microbiol 2012; 155: 1-12
31 Decaro N, Desario C, Billi M. et al. Evaluation of an in-clinic assay for the diagnosis of canine parvovirus. Vet J 2013; 198: 504-507
32 Deinert M. Enterale Sondenernährung von Kleintieren in der Praxis: Nasenschlundsonde und perkutane Magensonde. Tierärztl Prax 1997; 25: 627-636
33 Devey JJ. Crystalloid and colloid fluid therapy. In: Ettinger SJ, Feldman EC. eds. Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2010: 487-496
34 Dimmitt R. Clinical experience with cross-protective anti-endotoxin antiserum in dogs with parvoviral enteritis. Canine Pract 1991; 16: 23-26
35 DiPalma J. Metoclopramide: a dopamine receptor antagonist. Am Fam Physician 1990; 41: 919-924
36 Duffy A, Dow S, Ogilvie G. et al. Hematologic improvement in dogs with parvovirus infection treated with recombinant canine granulocyte-colony stimulating factor. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2010; 33: 352-356
37 Dunn ME. Acquired coagulopathies. In: Ettinger SJ, Feldman EC. eds. Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2010: 797-801
38 Egerbacher M, Edinger J, Tschulenk W. Effects of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin hydrochloride on canine and equine chondrocytes in culture. Am J Vet Res 2001; 62: 704-708
39 Elson CO, Cong Y, McCracken VJ. et al. Experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease reveal innate, adaptive, and regulatory mechanisms of host dialogue with the microbiota. Immunol Rev 2005; 206: 260-276
40 European Medical Agency. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) containing medicinal products. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/referrals/hydroxyethyl-starch-hes-containing-medicinal-products Zugriff am 26.09.2019
41 Fachinger V, Schlapp T, Strube W. et al. Poxvirus-induced immunostimulating effects on porcine leukocytes. J Virol 2000; 74: 7943-7951
42 Gajanayake I, Wylie CE, Chan DL. Clinical experience with a lipid-free, ready-made parenteral nutrition solution in dogs: 70 cases (2006–2012). J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2013; 23: 305-313
43 Gamoh K, Senda M, Inoue Y. et al. Efficacy of an inactivated feline panleucopenia virus vaccine against a canine parvovirus isolated from a domestic cat. Vet Rec 2005; 157: 285-287
44 Garcia Rodriguez LA, Ruigomez A, Panes J. Acute gastroenteritis is followed by an increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2006; 130: 1588-1594
45 Gerlach M, Proksch AL, Unterer S. et al. Efficacy of feline anti-parvovirus antibodies in the treatment of canine parvovirus infection. J Small Anim Pract 2017; 58 (07) 408-415
46 Ghauri SK, Javaeed A, Mustafa KJ. et al. Bicarbonate therapy for critically ill patients with metabolic acidosis: a systematic review. Cureus 2019; 11: e4297
47 Glickman LT, Domanski LM, Patronek GJ. et al. Breed-related risk factors for canine parvovirus enteritis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1985; 187: 589-594
48 Glover PA, Rudloff E, Kirby R. Hydroxyethyl starch: a review of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, current products, and potential clinical risks, benefits, and use. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2014; 24: 642-661
49 Goddard A, Leisewitz AL, Christopher MM. et al. Prognostic usefulness of blood leukocyte changes in canine parvoviral enteritis. J Vet Intern Med 2008; 22: 309-316
50 Goddard A, Leisewitz AL. Canine parvovirus. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2010; 40: 1041-1053
51 Goggs R, Blais MC, Brainard BM. et al. American college of veterinary emergency and critical care (ACVECC) consensus on the rational use of antithrombotics in veterinay critical care (CURATIVE) guidelines: small animal. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2019; 29: 12-36
52 Greene CE, Decaro N. Canine viral enteritis. In: Greene CE. ed. Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2013: 67-75
53 Greene CE, Levy JK. Immunoprophylaxis. In: Greene CE. ed. Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2013: 1163-1205
54 Grover M. Role of gut pathogens in development of irritable bowel syndrome. Indian J Med Res 2014; 139: 11-18
55 Gubareva LV, Kaiser L, Hayden FG. Influenza virus neuraminidase inhibitors. Lancet 2000; 355: 827-835
56 Hadfield RJ, Sinclair DG, Houldsworth PE. et al. Effects of enteral and parenteral nutrition on gut mucosal permeability in the critically ill. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1545-1548
57 Hall JA, Washabau RJ. Gastronintestinal prokinetic therapy: dopaminergic antagonist drugs. Comp Contin Educ Pract Vet 1997; 19: 214-220
58 Hartmann K, Hein J. Feline Panleukopenie. In: Hartmann K, Hein J. Hrsg. Infektionskrankheiten der Katze. Hannover: Schlütersche; 2008: 87-98
59 Heel KA, Kong SE, McCauley RD. et al. The effect of minimum luminal nutrition on mucosal cellularity and immunity of the gut. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998; 13: 1015-1019
60 Hinz B, Cheremina O, Bachmakov J. et al. Dipyrone elicits substantial inhibition of peripheral cyclooxygenases in humans: new insights into the pharmacology of an old analgesic. FASEB J 2007; 21: 2343-2351
61 Hoffmann R. Disseminierte intravasale Gerinnung (Verbrauchskoagulopathie) beim Haustier. Tierärztl Prax 1974; 2: 375-381
62 Hohdatsu T, Pu R, Torres BA. et al. Passive antibody protection of cats against feline immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 1993; 67: 2344-2348
63 Hopper K. Is bicarbonate therapy useful?. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2017; 47: 343-349
64 Hutchinson KM, Shaw SP. A review of central venous pressure and its reliability as a hemodynamic monitoring tool in veterinary medicine. Top Companion Anim Med 2016; 31: 109-121
65 Idowu O, Heading K. Hypoglycemia in dogs: causes, management, and diagnosis. Can Vet J 2018; 59: 642-649
66 Ishibashi K, Maede Y, Ohsugi T. et al. Serotherapy for dogs infected with canine parvovirus. Jap J Vet Sci 1983; 45: 59-66
67 Ishiwata K, Minagawa T, Kajimoto T. Clinical effects of the recombinant feline interferon-omega on experimental parvovirus infection in beagle dogs. J Vet Med Sci 1998; 60: 911-917
68 Kaiser L, Wat C, Mills T. et al. Impact of oseltamivir treatment on influenza-related lower respiratory tract complications and hospitalizations. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 1667-1672
69 Kariuki Njenga M, Nyaga P, Buoro I. et al. Effectiveness of fluids and antibiotics as supportive therapy of canine parvovirus-2 enteritis in puppies. Bull Anim Hlth Prod Afr 1990; 38: 379-389
70 Kilian E, Suchodolski JS, Hartmann K. et al. Long-term effects of canine parvovirus infection in dogs. PLoS One 2018; 13: e0192198
71 Konijnenbelt-Peters J, van der Heijden C, Ekhart C. et al. Metamizole (dipyrone) as an alternative agent in postoperative analgesia in patients with contraindications for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Pain Pract 2017; 17: 402-408
72 Kraft W, Kuffer M. [Treatment of severe neutropenias in dogs and cats with filgrastim]. Tierärztl Prax 1995; 23: 609-613
73 Krakowka S, Olsen RG, Axthelm MK. et al. Canine parvovirus infection potentiates canine distemper encephalitis attributable to modified live-virus vaccine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1982; 180: 137-139
74 Kuwabara M, Nariai Y, Horiuchi Y. et al. Immunological effects of recombinant feline interferon-ω (KT-80) administration in the dog. Microbiol Immunol 2006; 50: 637-641
75 Lamm CG, Rezabek GB. Parvovirus infection in domestic companion animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 837-850
76 Lascelles BD, Blikslager AT, Fox SM. et al. Gastrointestinal tract perforation in dogs treated with a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor: 29 cases (2002–2003). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005; 227: 1112-1117
77 Lee JA, Cohn LA. Fluid therapy for pediatric patients. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2017; 47: 373-382
78 Levy JK, Crawford PC, Collante WR. et al. Use of adult cat serum to correct failure of passive transfer in kittens. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001; 219: 1401-1405
79 Lippert AC, Fulton Jr. RB, Parr AM. A retrospective study of the use of total parenteral nutrition in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 1993; 7: 52-64
80 London C. Hematopoietic cytokines: the myelopoietic factors. In: Bonagura J. ed. Kirk‘s Current Veterinary Therapy XIII Small Animal Practice. Philadelphia: Saunder; 2000: 403-408
81 Lopez-Novoa JM, Quiros Y, Vicente L. et al. New insights into the mechanism of aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity: an integrative point of view. Kidney Int 2011; 79: 33-45
82 Lorenzutti AM, Martin-Flores M, Litterio NJ. et al. A comparison between maropitant and metoclopramide for the prevention of morphine-induced nausea and vomiting in dogs. Can Vet J 2017; 58: 35-38
83 Lynch AM, deLaforcade AM, Sharp CR. Clinical experience of anti-Xa monitoring in critically ill dogs receiving dalteparin. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2014; 24: 421-428
84 Macintire D, Smith-Carr S. Canine parvovirus. Part II. Clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment. Comp Cont Educ Pract Vet 1997; 19: 291-302
85 Macintire D, Smith-Carr S, Jones R. et al. Treatment of dogs naturally infected with canine parvovirus with lyophilized canine IgG. Proceedings 17th Annual Conference of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine 1999, Chicago.
86 Macintire DK. Pediatric fluid therapy. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 621-627 xii
87 Mann FA, Boon GD, Wagner-Mann CC. et al. Ionized and total magnesium concentrations in blood from dogs with naturally acquired parvoviral enteritis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998; 212: 1398-1401
88 Mantione NL, Otto CM. Characterization of the use of antiemetic agents in dogs with parvoviral enteritis treated at a veterinary teaching hospital: 77 cases (1997–2000). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005; 227: 1787-1793
89 Marks SL, Kook PH, Papich MG. et al. ACVIM consensus statement: support for rational administration of gastrointestinal protectants to dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2018; 32: 1823-1840
90 Martin G, Baverel G. Lactate, alanine and glutamine metabolism in isolated canine pup liver cells. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA)-General Subjects 1983; 760: 230-237
91 Martin V, Najbar W, Gueguen S. et al. Treatment of canine parvoviral enteritis with interferon-omega in a placebo-controlled challenge trial. Vet Microbiol 2002; 89: 115-127
92 Martyn JC, Davidson BE, Studdert MJ. Nucleotide sequence of feline panleukopenia virus: comparison with canine parvovirus identifies host-specific differences. J Gen Virol 1990; 71 (Pt 11) 2747-2753
93 Mathews KA, Barry M. The use of 25 % human serum albumin: outcome and efficacy in raising serum albumin and systemic blood pressure in critically ill dogs and cats. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2005; 15: 110-118
94 Mathews KA. The therapeutic use of 25 % human serum albumin in critically ill dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 595-605
95 Mayr A, Mayr B. A new concept in prophylaxis and therapy: paramunization by poxvirus inducers. Pesqui Vet Bras 1999; 19: 91-98
96 Mazzaferro EM, Rudloff E, Kirby R. The role of albumin replacement in the critically ill veterinary patient. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2002; 12: 113-124
97 McCullers JA. Effect of antiviral treatment on the outcome of secondary bacterial pneumonia after influenza. J Infect Dis 2004; 190: 519-526
98 McMichael M. Pediatric emergencies. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2005; 35: 421-434
99 McMichael M. Critically ill neonatal and pediatric patients. In: Silverstein D, Hopper K. eds. Small Animal Critical Care Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2014: 820-825
100 Mellett AM, Nakamura RK, Bianco D. A prospective study of clopidogrel therapy in dogs with primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia. J Vet Intern Med 2011; 25: 71-75
101 Mensack S. Fluid therapy: options and rational administration. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 575-586 xi
102 Meunier PC, Cooper BJ, Appel MJ. et al. Pathogenesis of canine parvovirus enteritis: sequential virus distribution and passive immunization studies. Vet Pathol 1985; 22: 617-624
103 Meunier PC, Cooper BJ, Appel MJ. et al. Pathogenesis of canine parvovirus enteritis: the importance of viremia. Vet Pathol 1985; 22: 60-71
104 Minagawa T, Ishiwata K, Kajimoto T. Feline interferon-omega treatment on canine parvovirus infection. Vet Microbiol 1999; 69: 51-53
105 Mischke R, Barth T, Wohlsein P. et al. Effect of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (rhG-CSF) on leukocyte count and survival rate of dogs with parvoviral enteritis. Res Vet Sci 2001; 70: 221-225
106 Mitchell SA, Zwijnenberg RJ, Huang J. et al. Duration of serological response to canine parvovirus-type 2, canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus type 1 and canine parainfluenza virus in client-owned dogs in Australia. Aust Vet J 2012; 90: 468-473
107 Mochizuki M, Nakatani H, Yoshida M. Inhibitory effects of recombinant feline interferon on the replication of feline enteropathogenic viruses in vitro. Vet Microbiol 1994; 39: 145-152
108 Mohr AJ, Leisewitz AL, Jacobson LS. et al. Effect of early enteral nutrition on intestinal permeability, intestinal protein loss, and outcome in dogs with severe parvoviral enteritis. J Vet Intern Med 2003; 17: 791-798
109 Moore FA, Feliciano DV, Andrassy RJ. et al. Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative septic complications. The results of a meta-analysis. Ann Surg 1992; 216: 172-183
110 Moore LE. Fluid therapy in the hypoproteinemic patient. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 1998; 28: 709-715
111 Ohno T, Mochiki E, Ando H. et al. Glutamine decreases the duration of postoperative ileus after abdominal surgery: an experimental study of conscious dogs. Dig Dis Sci 2009; 54: 1208-1213
112 Otto CM, Drobatz KJ, Soter C. Endotoxemia and tumor necrosis factor activity in dogs with naturally occurring parvoviral enteritis. J Vet Intern Med 1997; 11: 65-70
113 Otto CM, Rieser TM, Brooks MB. et al. Evidence of hypercoagulability in dogs with parvoviral enteritis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000; 217: 1500-1504
114 Otto CM, Jackson CB, Rogell EJ. et al. Recombinant bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (rBPI21) for treatment of parvovirus enteritis: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Vet Intern Med 2001; 15: 355-360
115 Pachtinger GE, Drobatz K. Assessment and treatment of hypovolemic states. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2008; 38: 629-643 xii
116 Paquette F, Bernier-Jean A, Brunette V. et al. Acute kidney injury and renal recovery with the use of aminoglycosides: a large retrospective study. Nephron 2015; 131: 153-160
117 Parrish CR. Host range relationships and the evolution of canine parvovirus. Vet Microbiol 1999; 69: 29-40
118 Pereira GQ, Gomes LA, Santos IS. et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation in puppies with canine parvovirus infection. J Vet Intern Med 2018; 32: 707-711
119 Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB. et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer‘s acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 124-134
120 Pollock RV, Carmichael LE. Maternally derived immunity to canine parvovirus infection: transfer, decline, and interference with vaccination. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1982; 180: 37-42
121 Prittie J. Canine parvoviral enteritis: a review of diagnosis, management, and prevention. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2004; 14: 167-176
122 Proksch AL, Unterer S, Truyen U. et al. Efficacy of the paramunity inducer PIND-ORF in the treatment of canine parvovirus infection. Vet J 2014; 202: 340-347
123 Proksch AL, Hartmann K. [Diagnostic tools for canine parvovirus infection]. Tierärztl Prax Ausg Kleintiere 2015; 43: 351-357
124 Ramsey DS, Kincaid K, Watkins JA. et al. Safety and efficacy of injectable and oral maropitant, a selective neurokinin 1 receptor antagonist, in a randomized clinical trial for treatment of vomiting in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2008; 31: 538-543
125 Reuter JD, Marks SL, Rogers QR. et al. Use of total parenteral nutrition in dogs: 209 cases (1988–1995). J Vet Emerg Crit Care 1998; 8: 201-213
126 Reviewers CIGA. Human albumin administration in critically ill patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 1998; 317: 235-240
127 Rewerts JM, McCaw DL, Cohn LA. et al. Recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for treatment of puppies with neutropenia secondary to canine parvovirus infection. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998; 213: 991-992
128 Ruehl W, Mills C, Feldman BF. Rational therapy in disseminated intravascular coagulation. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1982; 181: 76-78
129 Salter BS, Weiner MM, Trinh MA. et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: a comprehensive clinical review. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016; 67: 2519-2532
130 Savigny MR, Macintire DK. Use of oseltamivir in the treatment of canine parvoviral enteritis. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2010; 20: 132-142
131 Schultz RD, Thiel B, Mukhtar E. et al. Age and long-term protective immunity in dogs and cats. J Comp Pathol 2010; 142 (Suppl. 01) S102-108
132 Sedlacek HS, Ramsey DS, Boucher JF. et al. Comparative efficacy of maropitant and selected drugs in preventing emesis induced by centrally or peripherally acting emetogens in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2008; 31: 533-537
133 Serpa Neto A, Veelo DP, Peireira VG. et al. Fluid resuscitation with hydroxyethyl starches in patients with sepsis is associated with an increased incidence of acute kidney injury and use of renal replacement therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. J Crit Care 2014; 29: 185.e181-187
134 Silverstein D, Santoro-Beer K. Daily intravenous fluid therapy. In: Silverstein D, Hopper K. eds. Small Animal Critical Care Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2014: 316-321
135 Smiley LE, Garvey MS. The use of hetastarch as adjunct therapy in 26 dogs with hypoalbuminemia: a phase two clinical trial. J Vet Intern Med 1994; 8: 195-202
136 Smith-Carr S, Macintire D, Swango L. Canine parvovirus: Part I. Pathogenesis and vaccination. Comp Cont Educ Pract Vet 1997; 19: 125-133
137 Smith SA. Antithrombotic therapy. Top Companion Anim Med 2012; 27: 88-94
138 Streck AF, Ruster D, Truyen U. et al. An updated TaqMan real-time PCR for canine and feline parvoviruses. J Virol Methods 2013; 193: 6-8
139 Sullivan LA, Lenberg JP, Boscan P. et al. Assessing the efficacy of maropitant versus ondansetron in the treatment of dogs with parvoviral enteritis. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2018; 54: 338-343
140 Sutalo S, Ruetten M, Hartnack S. et al. The effect of orally administered ranitidine and once-daily or twice-daily orally administered omeprazole on intragastric pH in cats. J Vet Intern Med 2015; 29: 840-846
141 Tatsuo MA, Carvalho WM, Silva CV. et al. Analgesic and antiinflammatory effects of dipyrone in rat adjuvant arthritis model. Inflammation 1994; 18: 399-405
142 Tello L, Perez-Freytes R. Fluid and electrolyte therapy during vomiting and diarrhea. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2017; 47: 505-519
143 Tenne R, Sullivan LA, Contreras ET. et al. Palatability and clinical effects of an oral recuperation fluid during the recovery of dogs with suspected parvoviral enteritis. Top Companion Anim Med 2016; 31: 68-72
144 Thabane M, Marshall JK. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15: 3591-3596
145 Tolbert K, Bissett S, King A. et al. Efficacy of oral famotidine and 2 omeprazole formulations for the control of intragastric pH in dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2011; 25: 47-54
146 Tonini M, Cipollina L, Poluzzi E. et al. Review article: clinical implications of enteric and central D2 receptor blockade by antidopaminergic gastrointestinal prokinetics. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004; 19: 379-390
147 Truyen U, Blewaska S, Schultheiss U. Untersuchung der antiviralen Wirksamkeit von Interferon-Omega gegenausgewählte Viren von Hund und Katze. Prakt Tierarzt 2002; 83: 862-865
148 Truyen U. Evolution of canine parvovirus – a need for new vaccines?. Vet Microbiol 2006; 117: 9-13
149 Turk J, Miller M, Brown T. et al. Coliform septicemia and pulmonary disease associated with canine parvoviral enteritis: 88 cases (1987–1988). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1990; 196: 771-773
150 Van Nguyen S, Umeda K, Yokoyama H. et al. Passive protection of dogs against clinical disease due to canine parvovirus-2 by specific antibody from chicken egg yolk. Can J Vet Res 2006; 70: 62-64
151 Venturini CM, Isakson P, Needleman P. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced renal failure: a brief review of the role of cyclo-oxygenase isoforms. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 1998; 7: 79-82
152 Wada H, Thachil J, Di Nisio M. et al. Guidance for diagnosis and treatment of DIC from harmonization of the recommendations from three guidelines. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11: 761-767
153 Warkentin TE. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in critically ill patients. Semin Thromb Hemost 2015; 41: 49-60
154 Wessels B, Gaffin S. Anti-endotoxin immunotherapy for canine parvovirus endotoxaemia. J Small Anim Pract 1986; 27: 609-615
155 Wilkes MM, Navickis RJ. Patient survival after human albumin administration. A meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 2001; 135: 149-164
156 Willard MD. Digestive system disorders – general therapeutic principles. In: Nelson RW, Couto CG. eds. Small Animal Internal Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2014: 410-427
157 Wilson S, Illambas J, Siedek E. et al. Vaccination of dogs with canine parvovirus type 2b (CPV-2b) induces neutralising antibody responses to CPV-2a and CPV-2c. Vaccine 2014; 32: 5420-5424
158 Wong C, Koenig A. The colloid controversy: are colloids bad and what are the options?. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2017; 47: 411-421
159 Wood JD, Galligan JJ. Function of opioids in the enteric nervous system. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2004; 16 (Suppl. 02) 17-28
160 Yalcin E, Keser GO. Comparative efficacy of metoclopramide, ondansetron and maropitant in preventing parvoviral enteritis-induced emesis in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2017; 40: 599-603
161 Yoshida K, Yabe K, Nishida S. et al. Pharmacokinetic disposition and arthropathic potential of oral ofloxacin in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 1998; 21: 128-132