Zugangsschwellen zu HIV-Test-Angeboten – Eine systematische Literaturanalyse

Michael Wurm; Anja Neumann; Jürgen Wasem; Janine Biermann-Stallwitz

doi:10.1055/a-0668-5621

Das Gesundheitswesen, Table of Contents

Gesundheitswesen 2019; 81(03): e43-e57
DOI: 10.1055/a-0668-5621

Übersichtsarbeit

Zugangsschwellen zu HIV-Test-Angeboten – Eine systematische Literaturanalyse

Barriers to Accessing HIV Testing Services – A Systematic Literature Review

Authors

Michael Wurm

¹Lehrstuhl für Medizinmanagement, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen
Anja Neumann

¹Lehrstuhl für Medizinmanagement, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen
Jürgen Wasem

¹Lehrstuhl für Medizinmanagement, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen
Janine Biermann-Stallwitz

¹Lehrstuhl für Medizinmanagement, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen

Abstract

Zusammenfassung

Ziel In Deutschland liegen die jährlichen HIV-Neu-Infektionen bei 3100 (2016) und betreffen v. a. Männer, die Sex mit Männern haben sowie intravenös Drogengebrauchende. Es wird eine Rate von 30 % der HIV-Infektionen angenommen, die erst in einer fortgeschrittenen Phase der Infektion diagnostiziert werden, oft jenseits des optimalen Zeitpunkts des Behandlungsbeginns. Die hohe Rate an Late-Presentern ist ein starkes Argument für eine Stärkung von Beratungs- und HIV-Testangeboten. Ziel dieser Literaturanalyse ist es daher zu beschreiben, welche Zugangsschwellen zu HIV-Testangeboten existieren.

Methodik Mit einer Literaturanalyse wurde der aktuelle Erkenntnisstand in Forschung und Praxis darauf hin abgebildet, welche Barrieren Risikogruppen vom HIV-Test abhalten. In die Suche wurden alle Veröffentlichungen zwischen 2010 und 2014 aus Australien, Europa und Nordamerika einbezogen, die sich auf Klienten-initiierte Tests beziehen.

Ergebnisse 132 Veröffentlichungen wurden in eine Volltextanalyse einbezogen. Die meisten Veröffentlichungen basieren auf Klientenbefragungen. Die individuelle Risikowahrnehmung beeinflusst die Entscheidung für oder gegen einen HIV-Test maßgeblich. Diese kann über Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und über aufsuchende Angebote beeinflusst werden. In den Strukturen und Abläufen des HIV-Test-Angebotes sind Vertraulichkeit und Anonymität an jeder Stelle zentral. Darüber hinaus ist den Klienten wichtig, dass ihnen in den Beratungsgesprächen mit Akzeptanz und Vorurteilsfreiheit begegnet wird. Die Angst der Klienten vor Stigmatisierung, Verurteilung und Ausgrenzung verlangt eine besondere Sensibilität und lebensstilakzeptierende Haltung auf Seiten des Personals.

Schlussfolgerung Die Faktoren, die für Klienten bei der Entscheidung über einen HIV-Test und der Auswahl eines Test-Angebots von Bedeutung sind, werden klar abgebildet. Die zentralen Elemente in der Entscheidungsfindung sind die eigene Risikowahrnehmung sowie die Furcht vor Stigmatisierung aufgrund vermeintlich abweichenden Sexualverhaltens oder aufgrund einer befürchteten HIV-Infektion. Die Öffentlichkeitsarbeit sollte Risikofaktoren bzw. -wahrnehmung in Bezug auf HIV sowie Vertraulichkeit und Anonymität des Angebots betonen. Die Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke ist hierbei besonders empfehlenswert. Neue Angebotsformen wie Heimtests könnten die Sorgen hinsichtlich Vertraulichkeit und Anonymität auflösen.

Abstract

Objective In Germany there are 3,100 new HIV infections per year (2016), mainly homosexual men and intravenous drug users. According to experts from Robert Koch Institute, about 30 % of people with HIV are diagnosed late, well past the optimal moment to start the antiretroviral therapy. The high rate of late presenters seems to be a strong argument for an intensification of voluntary counseling and testing services. The main objective of this literature analysis was to describe the barriers to HIV testing.

Methods A systematic literature search was done to evaluate current knowledge on theory and practice regarding barriers that keep vulnerable groups from getting tested. The analysis includes all publications between 2000 and 2014 from western industrial states.

Results 132 publications have been included in a full text analysis. Most of these publications present the result of surveys of clients attending counseling and testing services. Hence, we have a clear idea of the elements that are relevant for clients when they decide whether or where to get tested for HIV. First, the individual risk perception influences the decision on getting tested or not. The risk perception can be influenced through public relations and outreach services. All processes within the counseling and testing service should be adapted to assure confidentiality and anonymity. In addition, clients want to have counseling that is accepting and free of prejudices. These elements are therefore important since HIV is often associated with getting stigmatized. Similar concerns regarding stigmatization occur if clie nts have sexual preferences that can be considered as deviant. The clients’ fear of stigmatization, judgment and social exclusion requires a high sensitivity for the situation of the clients and acceptance of their lifestyle.

Conclusion We have a clear insight into how clients decide on getting tested or not. The factor with the greatest influence in the decision-making process is the individual risk perception and anxiety regarding stigmatization. Stigmatization is suspected as a societal reaction to deviant sexual behavior or to being infected with HIV. Public relations should inform about risk factors and risk perception as well as on confidentiality and anonymity of the service. The use of social media and social networks is highly recommended. New approaches such as home testing could eliminate the concerns regarding confidentiality and anonymity.

Schlüsselwörter

HIV - Aids - HIV-Test - Setting - Late Presenter - Zugangsschwellen

Key words

HIV - Aids - HIV testing - setting - Thresholds - Late presenter

Full Text

References

Literatur
1 Robert Koch Institut (Hrsg.). Epidemiologisches Bulletin 47/2017. URL: https://www.rki.de/DE/Content/Infekt/EpidBull/Archiv/2017/ Ausgaben/47_17.pdf zuletzt geprüft am 15.05.2018. 2017
2 Kittner JM, von Bialy L, Wiltink J. et al. Lack of awareness in both patients and physicians contributes to a high rate of late presentation in a South West German HIV patient cohort. Infection 2015; 43: 299-305
3 Bundesministerium für Gesundheit (Hrsg.). Strategie zur Eindämmung von HIV, Hepatitis B und C und anderen sexuell übertragbaren Infektionen. URL: http://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/ fileadmin/Dateien/5_Publikationen/Praevention/Broschueren/ Strategie_BIS_2030_HIV_HEP_STI.pdf zuletzt geprüft am 15.09.2017. 2016
4 Holtgrave DR. Costs and Consequences of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Recommendations for Opt-Out HIV Testing. In: PLoS Medicine 2007; 4: 1011-1018
5 Phillips KA, Fernyak S. The cost-effectiveness of expanded HIV counselling and testing in primary care settings: a first look. In: AIDS 2000; 14: 2159-2169
6 Awad GH, Sagrestano LM, Kittleson MJ. et al. Development of a measure of barriers to HIV testing among individuals at high risk. In: AIDS Education and Prevention 2004; 16: 115-125
7 Barber TJ, Menon-Johansson A, Barton S. How can we remove barriers to HIV testing outside of a GUM setting?. In: British Journal of General Practice 2008; 58: 365
8 Bavinton BR, Brown G, Hurley M. et al. Which gay men would increase their frequency of HIV testing with home self-testing?. In: AIDS AND BEHAVIOR 2013; 17: 2084-2092
9 Deblonde J, Meulemans H, Callens S. et al HIV testing in Europe: Mapping policies. In: Health Policy 2011; 103: 101-110
10 Diserens E-A, Bodenmann P, N’Garambe C. Clients of sex workers in Switzerland: it makes sense to counsel and propose rapid test for HIV on the street, a preliminary report. In: BMC Infectious Diseases 2010; 74
11 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control . HIV testing: increasing uptake and effectiveness in the European Union. Stockholm: ECDC guidance; 2010
12 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. HIV testing: Increasing uptake and effectiveness in the European Union. ECDC Technical Report. Stockholm 2010
13 Ginsburg KR, Winn RJ, Judy BJ. et al. How to Reach Sexual Minority Youth in the Health Care Setting: The Teens Offer Guidance. In: Journal of adolescent health 2002; 31: 407-416
14 Hoyos J, Jose Belza M, Fernandez-Balbuena S et al Preferred HIV testing services and programme characteristics among clients of a rapid HIV testing programme. In: BMC PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 13
15 Joseph HA, Belcher L, O’Donnell L. et al HIV Testing Among Sexually Active Hispanic/Latino MSM in Miami-Dade County and New York City: Opportunities for Increasing Acceptance and Frequency of Testing. In: Health Promot. Pract 2014; 15: 867-880
16 Jung F. Der HIV-Antikörpertest – Antworten der Nutzerinnen und Nutzer. In: Gesundheitswesen 2011; 73: 97-104
17 Kaai S, Bullock S, Burchell AN. et al. Factors that affect HIV testing and counseling services among heterosexuals in Canada and the United Kingdom: An integrated review. In: PATIENT EDUCATION AND COUNSELING 2012; 88: 4-15
18 Latkin C, Weeks MR, Glasman L. et al A Dynamic Social Systems Model for Considering Structural Factors in HIV Prevention and Detection. In: AIDS and Behavior 2010; 14: S222-S238
19 Levy ME, Wilton L, Phillips II G. et al. Understanding Structural Barriers to Accessing HIV Testing and Prevention Services Among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men (BMSM) in the United States. In: AIDS AND BEHAVIOR 2014; 18: 972-996
20 Lewis NM, Gahagan JC, Stein C. Preferences for rapid point-of-care HIV testing in Nova Scotia, Canada. In: Sexual health 2013; 10: 124-132
21 Lorenc T, Marrero-Guillamon I, Llewellyn A. et al HIV testing among men who have sex with men (MSM): systematic review of qualitative evidence. In: Health Education Research 2011; 26: 834-846
22 Ojikutu B, Nnaji C, Sithole-Berk J. et al. Barriers to HIV Testing in Black Immigrants to the US. In: Journal of health care for the poor and underserved 2014; 25: 1052-1066
23 Prost A, Chopin M, McOwan A. et al. “There is such a thing as asking for trouble”: taking rapid HIV testing to gay venues is fraught with challenges. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2006; 83: 185-188
24 Rizza SA, MacGowan RJ, Purcell DW. et al. HIV Screening in the Health Care Setting: Status, Barriers, and Potential Solutions. In: MAYO CLINIC PROCEEDINGS 2012; 87: 915-924
25 Solorio R, Forehand M, Simoni J. Attitudes towards and beliefs about HIV testing among Latino immigrant MSM: A comparison of testers and nontesters. In: AIDS Res Treat 2013; 2013
26 Spielberg F, Branson BM, Goldbaum GM. Overcoming Barriers to HIV Testing: Preferences for New Strategies Among Clients of a Needle Exchange, a Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic, and Sex Venues for Men Who Have Sex with Men. In: Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 2003; 32: 318-328
27 Sweet D.Strategies & Solutions for Testing & Treating HIV in Underserved Areas of the US. Online verfügbar unter http://www. hivandhepatitis.com/cme/2010/healthmatters/streets/monograph. pdf zuletzt geprüft am 15.09.2017. 2010
28 Vermund SH, Wilson CM. Barriers to HIV testing – where next?. In: The Lancet 2002; 360: 1186-1187
29 Washington TA, Robles G, Malotte K. Factors associated with HIV-testing history among Black men who have sex with men (BMSM) in Los Angeles County. In: Behavioral Medicine 2013; 39: 52-59
30 Worthington C, Myers T. Desired Elements of HIV Testing Services: Test Recipient Perspectives. In: AIDS patient care & STDs 2002; 16: 537-548
31 Wright PB, Stewart KE, Curran GM. et al. A qualitative study of barriers to the utilization of HIV testing services among rural african american cocaine users. In: J Drug Issues 2013; 43: 314-334
32 Fortenberry JD, McFarlane M, Bleakley A. et al Relationships of Stigma and Shame to Gonorrhea and HIV Screening. In: American journal of public health 2002; 92: 378-381
33 Mounier-Jack S, Nielsen S, Coker RJ. HIV testing strategies across European countries. In: HIV Medicine 2008; 9s2 13-19
34 Parker R, Aggleton P. HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination. In: Social science & medicine 2003; 57: 13-24
35 Raben D, Delpech V, de Wit J. et al. Conclusions from the HIV in Europe Copenhagen 2012 Conference and ways forward: working together for optimal HIV testing and earlier care. In: HIV MEDICINE 2013; 14: 1-5
36 Ratcliffe L, Thomas S, Beeching NJ. et al Acute presentations of HIV are still missed in low prevalence areas. In: Postgraduate Medical Journal 2011; 87: 170-174
37 Nanin J, Osubu T, Walker JN. et al “HIV Is Still Real”: Perceptions of HIV Testing and HIV Prevention Among Black Men Who Have Sex With Men in New York City. In: American Journal of Men's Health 2009; 3: 150-164
38 Pedrana A, Guy R, Bowring A et al. Community models of HIV testing for men who have sex with men (MSM). Systematic Review. Sydney 2011
39 Alvarez-Del Arco D, Monge S, Azcoaga A. et al. HIV testing and counselling for migrant populations living in high-income countries: A systematic review. In: Eur J Public Health 2013; 23: 1039-1045
40 Bass MG, Korthuis PT, Cofrancesco J. et al Provider and Practice Characteristics Associated with Use of Rapid HIV Testing by General Internists. In: Journal of General Internal Medicine 2011; 26: 1258-1264
41 Bolsewicz K, Vallely A, Debattista J. et al. Factors impacting HIV testing: a review - perspectives from Australia, Canada, and the UK. In: AIDS Care 2014; 1-11
42 Christianson M, Berglin B, Johansson EE. ‘It should be an ordinary thing’- a qualitative study about young people’s experiences of taking the HIV-test and receiving the test result. In: Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences 2010; 24: 678-683
43 Grusky O, Duan N, Swanson A-N. et al. Evaluating the Accessibility of HIV Testing Organizations. In: Evaluation & the Health Professions 2004; 27: 189-205
44 Hunter E, Perry M, Leen C. et al. HIV testing: getting the message across-a survey of knowledge, attitudes and practice among non-HIV specialist physicians. In: Postgraduate Medical Journal 2012; 88: 59-65 doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2011-130031
45 Jalloh C, McMillan B, Ormond M. et al. Evaluation of Harsh Reality: A sexual health print-based resource for street-involved youth. In: Health Educ J 2013; 72: 337-344
46 Navaza B, Guionnet A, Navarro M. et al Reluctance to Do Blood Testing Limits HIV Diagnosis and Appropriate Health Care of Sub-Saharan African Migrants Living in Spain. In: AIDS AND BEHAVIOR 2012; 16: 30-35
47 World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (Hrsg.). Scaling up HIV testing and counselling as an essential component of efforts to achieve universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care, and support in the WHO European Region 2010 2010;
48 Wood H, Colver H, Stewart E. et al. Increasing uptake of HIV tests in men who have sex with men. In: The Practioner 2011; 255: 25-28
49 Yazdanpanah Y, Lange J, Gerstoft J. et al. Earlier testing for HIV – how do we prevent late presentation?. In: Antiviral Therapy 2010; 15 (Suppl. 01) 17-24
50 Flowers P, Knussen C, Li J. et al. Has testing been normalized? An analysis of changes in barriers to HIV testing among men who have sex with men between 2000 and 2010 in Scotland, UK. In: HIV Med 2013; 14: 92-98
51 Lekas H-M, Schrimshaw EW, Siegel K. Pathways to HIV-testing among adults aged fifty and older with HIV/AIDS. In: AIDS Care 2005; 17: 674-687
52 Vermund SH, Van Lith LM, Holtgrave D. Strategic roles for health communication in combination HIV prevention and care programs. In: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2014; 66 (Suppl. 03) S237-S240
53 Coenen T, Lundgren J, Lazarus JV. et al. Optimal HIV testing and earlier care: the way forward in Europe. In: HIV Medicine 2008; 9 s2 1-5
54 Underwood C, Hendrickson Z, Van Lith LM. et al. Role of Community-Level Factors Across the Treatment Cascade: A Critical Review. In: JAIDS-JOURNAL OF ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES 2014; 66: S311
55 Hottes TS, Farrell J, Bondyra M. et al. Internet-Based HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infection Testing in British Columbia, Canada: Opinions and Expectations of Prospective Clients. In: JOURNAL OF MEDICAL INTERNET RESEARCH 2012; 14: e41
56 Forsyth SF, Agogo EA, Lau L. et al. Would offering rapid point-of-care testing or non-invasive methods improve uptake of HIV testing among high-risk genitourinary medicine clinic attendees? A patient perspective. In: International Journal of STD & AIDS 2008; 19: 550-552
57 Coco A. The Cost-Effectiveness of Expanded Testing for Primary HIV Infection. In: The Annals of Family Medicine 2005; 3: 391-399
58 Huebner DM, Binson D, Dilworth SE. et al. Rapid vs. Standard HIV Testing in Bathhouses: What is Gained and Lost?. In: AIDS and Behavior 2010; 14: 688-696
59 Sanders GD, Anaya HD, Asch S. et al. Cost-Effectiveness of Strategies to Improve HIV Testing and Receipt of Results: Economic Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial. In: Journal of General Internal Medicine 2010; 25: 556-563
60 Patel N, Rana A, Thomas A. et al. HIV testing practices among New England college health centers. In: AIDS RESEARCH AND THERAPY 2013; 10: 8
61 Hutchinson AB, Branson BM, Kim A. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of alternative HIV counseling and testing methods to increase knowledge of HIV status. In: AIDS and Behavior 2006; 20: 1597-1604
62 Liang TS, Erbelding E, Jacob CA. et al. Rapid HIV testing of clients of a mobile STD/HIV clinic. In: AIDS patient care & STDs 2005; 19: 253-257
63 Liebman J, Lamberti MP, Altice F. Effectiveness of a Mobile Medical Van in Providing Screening Services for STDs and HIV. In: Public Health Nursing 2002; 19: 345-353
64 Lorenc T, Marrero-Guillamon I, Aggleton P. et al Promoting the uptake of HIV testing among men who have sex with men: systematic review of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2011; 87: 272-278
65 MacPherson P, Chawla A, Jones K. et al. Feasibility and acceptability of point of care HIV testing in community outreach and GUM drop-in services in the North West of England: A programmatic evaluation. In: BMC Public Health 2011; 11: 419
66 Marsh KA, Reynolds GL, Rogala BE. et al Who Chooses a Rapid Test for HIV in Los Angeles County, California?. In: Evaluation & the Health Professions 2010; 33: 177-196
67 Prost A, Griffiths CJ, Anderson J. et al. Feasibility and acceptability of offering rapid HIV tests to patients registering with primary care in London (UK): a pilot study. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2009; 85: 326-329
68 Salt J, Davidson KM, Harvey J. Factors affecting GUM clinic attenders decisions and intentions to seek HIV-testing. In: Irish journal of psychological medicine 2001; 18: 54-60
69 Liddicoat RV, Losina E, Kang M. Refusing HIV testing in an urgent care setting: Results from the “Think HIV Program”. In: AIDS patient care & STDs 2006; 20: 84-92
70 Rotheram-Borus MJ, Newman PA, Etzel MA. Effective detection of HIV. In: JOURNAL OF ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES 2000; 25: S105
71 Pottie K, Dahal G, Logie C et al. Rapid testing for improving uptake of HIV/AIDS services in people with HIV infection (Protocol). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012; 2011: Art. No.: CD003507
72 Juusola JL, Brandeau ML, Long EF. et al. The cost-effectiveness of symptom-based testing and routine screening for acute HIV infection in men who have sex with men in the USA. In: AIDS 2011; 25: 1779-1787
73 Ehrenkranz P, Pagan J, Begier EM. et al. Written informed-consent statutes and HIV-testing. In: American journal of preventive medicine 2009; 37: 57-63
74 Walensky RP, Weinstein MC, Smith HE. Optimal Allocation of Testing Dollars: The Example of HIV Counseling, Testing, and Referral. In: Medical Decision Making 2005; 25: 321-329
75 Wing C. Effects of Written Informed Consent Requirements on HIV Testing Rates: Evidence From a Natural Experiment. In: American journal of public health 2009; 99: 1087-1092
76 Zetola NM, Grijalva CG, Gertler S. et al Simplifying Consent for HIV Testing Is Associated with an Increase in HIV Testing and Case Detection in Highest Risk Groups, San Francisco January 2003–June 2007. In: PLoS ONE 2008; 3: e2591
77 Huebner DM, Binson D, Woods WJ. et al. Bathhouse-Based Voluntary Counseling and Testing Is Feasible and Shows Preliminary Evidence of Effectiveness. In: Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 2006; 239-246
78 Daskalakis D, Silvera R, Bernstein K. et al. Implementation of HIV Testing at 2 New York City Bathhouses: From Pilot to Clinical Service. In: Clinical Infectious Diseases 2009; 1609-1616
79 Dugdale C, Zaller N, Bratberg J. et al. Missed opportunities for HIV screening in pharmacies and retail clinics. In: J Managed Care Pharm 2014; 20: 339-345
80 Ellen JM, Bonu S, Arruda Jaime S. et al. Comparison of Clients of a Mobile Health Van and a Traditional STD Clinic. In: Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 2002; 32: 388-393
81 Erausquin JT, Duan N, Grusky O. et al. Increasing the Reach of HIV Testing to Young Latino MSM: Results of a Pilot Study Integrating Outreach and Services. In: Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 2009; 20: 756-765
82 Meyerson BE, Ryder PT, von Hippel C. et al. We can do more than just sell the test: Pharmacist perspectives about over-the-counter rapid HIV tests. In: AIDS AND BEHAVIOR 2013; 17: 2109-2113
83 Shresta RK, Clark HA, Sansom SL. et al. Cost-Effectiveness of Finding New HIV Diagnoses Using Rapid HIV Testing in Community-Based Organizations. In: Public Health Reports 2008; 123: 94-100
84 Spielberg F, Branson BM, Goldbaum GM. Designing an HIV counseling and testing program for bathhouses: The Seattle experience with strategies to improve acceptability. In: Journal of Homosexuality 2003; 44: 203-220
85 Woods WJ, Euren J, Pollack LM. et al. HIV Prevention in Gay Bathhouses and Sex Clubs Across the United States. In: Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 2010; 55 s2 s88-s90
86 Young SD, Cumberland WG, Lee S-J. et al. Social networking technologies as an emerging tool for HIV prevention. In: Ann Intern Med 2013; 159: 318-324
87 Galvan FH, Bluthenthal RN, Ani C. et al. Increasing HIV Testing Among Latinos by Bundling HIV Testing with Other Tests. In: Journal of Urban Health 2006; 83: 849-859
88 Halkitis PN, Kupprat SA, McCree DH. et al. Evaluation of the Relative Effectiveness of Three HIV Testing Strategies Targeting African American Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) in New York City. In: Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2011; 42: 361-369
89 Holt M, Rawstorne P, Wilkinson J. et al. HIV testing, gay community involvement and internet use: Social and behavioural correlates of HIV testing among Australian men who have sex with men. In: AIDS AND BEHAVIOR 2012; 16: 13-22
90 Lauby JL, Bond L, Eroglu D. et al. Decisional Balance, Perceived Risk and HIV Testing Practices. In: AIDS and Behavior 2006; 10: 83-93
91 Lazarus JV, Jürgens R, Weait M. et al. Overcoming obstacles to late presentation for HIV infection in Europe. In: HIV Medicine 2011; 12: 246-249
92 Europäische Kommission. Action Plan on HIV/AIDS in the EU and neighbouring countries. URL: http://ec.europa.eu/health/sti_preven tion/docs/ec_hiv_actionplan_2014_en.pdf Zuletzt geprüft am 12.05.2017. 2014
93 Erwin J, Morgan M, Britten N. et al. Pathways to HIV testing and care by black African and white patients in London. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2002; 78: 37-39
94 Leibowitz AA, Taylor SL. Distance to Public Test Sites and HIV Testing. In: Medical Care Research and Review 2007; 64: 568-584
95 Peralta L, Constantine N, Deeds BG. Evaluation of Youth Preferences for Rapid and Innovative Human Immunodeficiency Virus Antibody Tests. In: Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 2001; 155: 838-843
96 Arya M, Kallen MA, Street RL. et al. African-American patientsʼ preferences for a health center campaign promoting HIV testing: An exploratory study and future directions. In: J Int Assoc Providers AIDS Care 2014; 13: 488-491
97 Chadborn TR, McGarrigle CA, Waight PA. et al. Trends in, and determinants of, HIV testing at genitourinary medicine clinics and general practice in England, 1990-2000. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2004; 80: 145-150
98 Futterman DC, Peralta L, Rudy BJ. et al. The ACCESS (Adolescents Connected to Care, Evaluation, and Special Services) Project: Social marketing to promote HIV testing to adolescents, methods and first year results from a six city campaign. In: Journal of Adolescent Health 2001; 29 (Suppl. 03) 19-29
99 Vidanapathirana J, Abramson MJ, Forbes A et al. Mass media interventions for promoting HIV testing. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009; 2005 (Issue 3): CD004775
100 Zoufaly A, An der Heiden M, Marcus U. et al. Late presentation for HIV diagnosis and care in Germany. In HIV Medicine 2012; 13: 172-181
101 Clark HA, Bowles KE, Song B. et al. Implementation of Rapid HIV Testing Programs in Community and Outreach Settings: Perspectives from Staff at Eight Community-Based Organizations in Seven U.S. Cities. In: Public Health Reports 2008; 123 S3 86-93
102 Emerson C, Brown T, Illemsky S. et al. Use of Social Networks to Identify Persons with Undiagnosed HIV Infection – Seven U.S. Cities, October 2003-September 2004. In: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2005; 54: 601-605
103 Girardi E, Sabin CA, d’Arminio Monforte A. Late Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Epidemiological Features, Consequences and Strategies to Encourage Earlier Testing. In: Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes 2007; 46 (Suppl1): S3-S8
104 Golden MR, Gift TL, Brewer DD. et al. Peer referral for HIV case-finding among men who have sex with men. In: AIDS 2006; 20: 1961-1968
105 Kimbrough LW, Fisher HE, Jones Kenneth T. et al. Accessing Social Networks With High Rates of Undiagnosed HIV Infection: The Social Networks Demonstration Project. In: American journal of public health 2009; 99: 1094-1099
106 World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe. Guidance on testing and counselling for HIV in settings attended by people who inject drugs 2001
107 Mayer KH, Ducharme R, Zaller ND. et al. Unprotected sex, underestimated risk, undiagnosed HIV and sexually transmitted diseases among men who have sex with men accessing testing services in a New England bathhouse. In: JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2012; 59: 194-198
108 Ober AJ, Martino SC, Ewing B. et al. If you provide the test, they will take it: Factors associated with HIV/STI testing in a representative sample of homeless youth in Los Angeles. In: AIDS EDUCATION AND PREVENTION 2012; 24: 350-362
109 Petroll AE, DiFranceisco W, McAuliffe TL. et al. HIV Testing Rates, Testing Locations, and Healthcare Utilization among Urban African-American Men. In: Journal of Urban Health 2009; 86: 119-131
110 White K, Rudolph AE, Jones KC. et al. Social and individual risk determinants of HIV testing practices among noninjection drug users at high risk for HIV/AIDS. In: AIDS Care 2013; 25: 230-238
111 McCree DH, Millett G, Baytop C. et al. Lessons learned from use of social network strategy in HIV testing programs targeting African American men who have sex with men. In: Am J Public Health 2013; 103: 1851-1856
112 Scott HM, Pollack L, Rebchook GM. et al. Peer social support is associated with recent HIV testing among young black men who have sex with men. In: AIDS Behav. 2014; 18: 913-920
113 Adam PCG, De Wit JBF, Bourne CP. et al. Promoting regular testing: An examination of HIV and STI testing routines and associated socio-demographic, behavioral and social-cognitive factors among men who have sex with men in New South Wales, Australia. In: AIDS Behav 2014; 18: 921-932
114 Boyer CB, Hightow-Weidman L, Bethel J. et al. An assessment of the feasibility and acceptability of a friendship-based social network recruitment strategy to screen at-risk african american and hispanic/latina young women for HIV infection. In: JAMA Pediatr 2013; 167: 289-296
115 Bond L, Lauby J, Batson H. HIV testing and the role of individual- and structural-level barriers and facilitators. In: AIDS Care 2005; 17: 125-140
116 Arya M, Kumar D, Patel S. et al. Mitigating HIV health disparities: The promise of mobile health for a patient-initiated solution. In: Am J Public Health 2014; 104: 2251-2255
117 Bourne C, Knight V, Guy R. et al. Short message service reminder intervention doubles sexually transmitted infection/HIV re-testing rates among men who have sex with men. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2011; 87: 229-231
118 Chan K, Hernandez L, Yang H. et al. Comparative cost analysis of clinical reminder for HIV testing at the veterans affairs healthcare system. In: Value Health 2014; 17: 334-339
119 de Wit John BF, Adam PCG. To test or not to test: psychosocial barriers to HIV testing in high-income countries. In: HIV Medicine 2008; 9 s2 20-22
120 Hull SJ. Perceived Risk as a Moderator of the Effectiveness of Framed HIV-Test Promotion Messages Among Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. In: HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 2012; 31: 114-121
121 Dukers-Muijrers NHTM, Niekamp A-MVMMH. Effectiveness of an opting-out strategy for HIV testing: evaluation of 4 years of standard HIV testing in a STI clinic. In: Sexual Transmitted Infections 2009; 85: 226-230
122 Burns F, Mercer CH, Mercey DSST. et al. Factors that may increase HIV testing uptake in those who decline to test. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2004; 80: 247-249
123 Champenois K, Cousien A, Cuzin L et al. Missed opportunities for HIV testing in newly-HIV-diagnosed patients, a cross sectional study. In: BMC Infect Dis 2013; 13
124 Campbell T, Bernhardt S. Factors that contribute to women declining antenatal HIV testing. In: Health Care for Women International 2003; 24: 544-551
125 Dowson L, Kober C, Perry N. et al. Why some MSM present late for HIV testing: A qualitative analysis. In: AIDS Care 2012; 24: 204-209
126 Rogstad KE. HIV testing for patients attending general medical services: concise guidelines. In: Clinical Medicine 2004; 42: 136-139
127 Heijman RLJ, Stolte IG, Thiesbrummel HFJ. et al. Opting out increases HIV testing in a large sexually transmitted infections outpatient clinic. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2009; 85: 249-255
128 Sawleshwarkar S, Harrison C, Britt H. et al Determinants of HIV testing. In: Sexually Transmitted Infections 2011; 87: 426-432
129 McGarrigle CA, Mercer CH, Fentona KA. et al. Investigating the relationship between HIV testing and risk behaviour in Britain. National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles 2000 2005; 19: 77-84
130 Mitchell JW, Horvath KJ. Factors associated with regular HIV testing among a sample of US MSM with HIV-negative main partners. In: JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2013; 64: 417-423
131 Goetz MB, Hoang T, Bowman C. et al. A System-wide Intervention to Improve HIV Testing in the Veterans Health Administration. In: Journal of of General Internal Medicine 2008; 23: 1200-1207
132 Lee R, Cui RR, Muessig KE. et al. Incentivizing HIV/STI testing: a systematic review of the literature. In: AIDS Behav 2014; 18: 905-912 10.1007/s10461-013-0588-8
133 Haukoos JS, Witt MD, Coil CJ. et al The Effect of Financial Incentives on Adherence with Outpatient Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing Referrals from the Emergency Department. In: Academic Emergency Medicine 2005; 12: 617-621
134 Hullett CR. Using functional theory to promote HIV-testing: The impact of value-expressing messages, uncertainty and fear. In: Health Communication 2006; 20: 57-67
135 Hamill M, Copas A, Murphy SM. Incentives for voluntary HIV testing in NHS staff. In: Occupational Medicine 2006; 56: 426-429
136 Barragán M, Hicks G, Williams MV. et al. Low health literacy is associated with HIV test acceptance. In: Journal of General Internal Medicine 2005; 20: 422-425
137 Surratt HL, OʼGrady CL, Kurtz SP. et al. HIV Testing and Engagement in Care among Highly Vulnerable Female Sex Workers: Implications for Treatment as Prevention Models. In: JOURNAL OF HEALTH CARE FOR THE POOR AND UNDERSERVED 2014; 25: 1360-1378
138 Korsten C. Liebesleben. URL: https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/pdf/ ksa_Forum_5_Impuls_Corsten_bzgA.pdf zuletzt geprüft am 15.09.2017. 2016
139 World Health Organization (Hrsg.). Guidelines on HIV self-testing and partner notification. URL: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstre am/10665/251655/1/9789241549868-eng.pdf?ua = 1 zuletzt geprüft am 15.09.2017. 2016
140 Deutsche AIDS-Hilfe (Hrsg.). Gesundheitsministerium prüft Zulassung des HIV-Heimtests. URL: http://magazin.hiv/2017/05/10/ hiv-heimtest-zulassung-noch-2017 zuletzt geprüft am 15.09.2017. 2017