Signifikante Bakteriurie der Katze: bakterielle Harnwegsinfektion und subklinische Bakteriurie

Svenja Teichmann-Knorrn; Roswitha Dorsch

doi:10.15654/TPK-180521

Tierärztliche Praxis Ausgabe K: Kleintiere / Heimtiere, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2018; 46(04): 247-259
DOI: 10.15654/TPK-180521

Übersichtsartikel – Review Article

Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart New York

Signifikante Bakteriurie der Katze: bakterielle Harnwegsinfektion und subklinische Bakteriurie

Eine aktuelle ÜbersichtSignificant bacteriuria in cats: urinary tract infection and subclinical bacteriuriaA current review

Svenja Teichmann-Knorrn

¹Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

,

Roswitha Dorsch

¹Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

› Institutsangaben

Abstract

Zusammenfassung

Bei Harnwegsinfektionen (HWI) handelt es sich um die Anheftung und Multiplikation von Erregern im Harntrakt. Acht bis 19 % der Katzen mit klinischen Symptomen einer Erkrankung der unteren Harnwege leiden an einer HWI. Bei Katzen mit einer subklinischen Bakteriurie kann eine signifikante Anzahl an Bakterien im Urin nachgewiesen werden, obwohl keine entsprechenden Symptome vorliegen. Die Prävalenz der subklinischen Bakteriurie in der Katzenpopulation beträgt 1–29 %. Neben dem am häufigsten isolierten Uropathogen Escherichia coli werden oft Streptokokken, Enterokokken und Staphylokokken nachgewiesen. Harnwegsinfektionen sind ein häufiger Grund für den Einsatz von Antibiotika. Um der zunehmenden Resistenzentstehung vorzubeugen, sollte ein Antibiotikum mit möglichst engem Wirkspektrum basierend auf den Ergebnissen der Kultur und des Antibiogramms gewählt werden. Aktuell ist die Studienlage zur Behandlung der subklinischen Bakteriurie unzureichend. Die meisten Experten empfehlen, nur Patienten mit einem erhöhten Risiko aufsteigender Infektionen antibiotisch zu behandeln.

Summary

Urinary tract infection (UTI) refers to the adherence and multiplication of an infectious agent within the urinary system. In 8–19 % of cats with clinical signs of lower urinary tract disease, bacterial UTI is identified as a cause. Subclinical bacteriuria is defined as the isolation of a significant number of bacteria in a urine specimen obtained from a patient without symptoms related to UTI. Subclinical bacteriuria has been reported in 1–29 % of cats. The most commonly isolated pathogen in feline urine is Escherichia coli. Other frequently isolated microorganisms are Streptococcus species (spp.), Enterococcus spp. and Staphylococcus spp. Antimicrobials are frequently used to treat UTIs. To prevent the development of antibiotic resistance, results of urine culture and susceptibility testing should be first obtained and antimicrobials with a narrow spectrum of activity should be used. Currently, there is insufficient evidence as to whether subclinical bacteriuria in cats should be treated or not. However, treatment of subclinical bacteriuria is only recommended in patients with an increased risk of ascending infections.

Schlüsselwörter

Zystitis - feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD) - asymptomatische Bakteriurie - Antibiotika - Resistenzen

Keywords

Cystitis - feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD) - asymptomatic bacteriuria - antimicrobial susceptibility - antimicrobial resistance - feline

Volltext

Referenzen

Literatur
1 Aucoin D. Rational approaches to the treatment of first time, relapsing, and recurrent urinary tract infections.. Probl Vet Med 1990; 2: 290-297.
2 Bailiff N, Westropp J, Sykes J, Nelson R, Kass P. Comparison of urinary tract infections in cats presenting with lower urinary tract signs and cats with chronic kidney disease, hyperthyroidism, and diabetes mellitus.. J Vet Intern Med 2007; 21: 649-646.
3 Bailiff NL, Westropp JL, Jang SS, Ling GV. Corynebacterium urealyticum urinary tract infection in dogs and cats: 7 cases (1996-2003).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005; 226: 1676-1680.
4 Bailiff NL, Nelson RW, Feldman EC, Westropp JL, Ling GV, Jang SS, Kass PH. Frequency and risk factors for urinary tract infection in cats with diabetes mellitus.. J Vet Intern Med 2006; 20: 850-855.
5 Bailiff NL, Westropp JL, Nelson RW, Sykes JE, Owens SD, Kass PH. Evaluation of urine specific gravity and urine sediment as risk factors for urinary tract infections in cats.. Vet Clin Pathol 2008; 37: 317-322.
6 Barsanti JA. Genitourinary Infections. In: Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat.. Greene CE. ed St. Louis: Saunders; 2012: 1013-1044.
7 Bartges JW. Diagnosis of urinary tract infections.. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2004; 34: 923-933.
8 Bartges JW. Bacterial urinary tract infections-simple and complicated.. Vet Med 2005; 100: 224-232.
9 Bass M, Howard J, Gerber B, Messmer M. Retrospective study of indications for and outcome of perineal urethrostomy in cats.. J Small Anim Pract 2005; 46: 227-231.
10 Biegen VR, Slusser PG, Fischetti AJ, Geist MR. Successful treatment of encrusted cystitis associated with Staphylococcus pseudintermedius infection in the urinary bladder of a dog.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013; 242: 798-802.
11 Bonten MJ, Willems R, Weinstein RA. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: why are they here, and where do they come from?. Lancet Infect Dis 2001; 1: 314-325.
12 Briscoe KA, Barrs VR, Lindsay S, Hoffmann KL, Cockwill KR, Muscatello G, Beatty JA. Encrusting cystitis in a cat secondary to Corynebacterium urealyticum infection.. J Feline Med Surg 2010; 12: 972-977.
13 Brooks MB, Morley PS, Dargatz DA, Hyatt DR, Salman M, Akey BL. Survey of antimicrobial susceptibility testing practices of veterinary diagnostic laboratories in the United States.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003; 222: 168-173.
14 Cai T, Mazzoli S, Mondaini N, Meacci F, Nesi G, D‘elia C, Malossini G, Boddi V, Bartoletti R. The role of asymptomatic bacteriuria in young women with recurrent urinary tract infections: to treat or not to treat?. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 771-777.
15 Cheng AC, Turnidge J, Collignon P, Looke D, Barton M, Gottlieb T. Control of fluoroquinolone resistance through successful regulation, Australia.. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18: 1453-1460.
16 Choi J, Jang J, Choi H, Kim H, Yoon J. Ultrasonographic features of pyonephrosis in dogs.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2010; 51: 548-553.
17 Clare S, Hartmann FA, Jooss M, Bachar E, Wong YY, Trepanier LA, Viviano KR. Short- and long-term cure rates of short-duration trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole treatment in female dogs with uncomplicated bacterial cystitis.. J Vet Intern Med 2014; 28: 818-826.
18 Cohen MP, Gerald S. Water transport in the kidney and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.. J Vet Intern Med 2002; 16: 510-517.
19 Davies N, Williams JH. Emphysematous cystitis in a non-diabetic cat.. J S Afr Vet Assoc 1993; 64: 162-164.
20 Dorsch R, Remer C, Sauter-Louis C, Hartmann K. Feline lower urinary tract disease in a German cat population. A retrospective analysis of demographic data, causes and clinical signs.. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2014; 42: 231-239.
21 Dorsch R, von Vopelius-Feldt C, Wolf G, Straubinger RK, Hartmann K. Feline urinary tract pathogens: prevalence of bacterial species and antimicrobial resistance over a 10-year period.. Vet Rec 2015; 176: 201
22 Dorsch R, von Vopelius-Feldt C, Wolf G, Mueller RS, Straubinger RK, Hartmann K. Urinary tract infections in cats. Prevalence of comorbidities and bacterial species, and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility to commonly used antimicrobial agents.. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2016; 44: 227-236.
23 Eggertsdottir AV, Saevik BK, Halvorsen I, Sorum H. Occurrence of occult bacteriuria in healthy cats.. J Feline Med Surg 2011; 13: 800-803.
24 Gerber B, Boretti FS, Kley S, Laluha P, Muller C, Sieber N, Unterer S, Wenger M, Fluckiger M, Glaus T, Reusch CE. Evaluation of clinical signs and causes of lower urinary tract disease in European cats.. J Small Anim Pract 2005; 46: 571-577.
25 Gibson J, Morton J, Cobbold R, Filippich L, Trott D. Risk factors for multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli rectal colonization of dogs on admission to a veterinary hospital.. Epidem Infect 2011; 139: 197-205.
26 Gibson JS, Morton JM, Cobbold RN, Sidjabat HE, Filippich LJ, Trott DJ. Multidrug-resistant E. coli and enterobacter extraintestinal infection in 37 dogs.. J Vet Intern Med 2008; 22: 844-850.
27 Griffin D, Gregory C. Prevalence of bacterial urinary tract infection after perineal urethrostomy in cats.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1992; 200: 681-684.
28 Guardabassi L, Schwarz S, Lloyd DH. Pet animals as reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria.. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54: 321-332.
29 Gupta K, Chou M, Howell A, Wobbe C, Grady R, Stapleton A. Cranberry products inhibit adherence of p-fimbriated Escherichia coli to primary cultured bladder and vaginal epithelial cells.. J Urol 2007; 177: 2357-2360.
30 Hernandez J, Bota D, Farbos M, Bernardin F, Ragetly G, Médaille C. Risk factors for urinary tract infection with multiple drug-resistant Escherichia coli in cats.. J Feline Med Surg 2014; 16: 75-81.
31 Hollenbeck BL, Rice LB. Intrinsic and acquired resistance mechanisms in enterococcus.. Virulence 2012; 3: 421-433.
32 Howell AB, Botto H, Combescure C, Blanc-Potard A-B, Gausa L, Matsumoto T, Tenke P, Sotto A, Lavigne J-P. Dosage effect on uropathogenic Escherichia coli anti-adhesion activity in urine following consumption of cranberry powder standardized for proanthocyanidin content: a multicentric randomized double blind study.. BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10: 94
33 Hugonnard M, Chalvet-Monfray K, Dernis J, Pouzot-Nevoret C, Barthelemy A, Vialard J, Goy-Thollot I. Occurrence of bacteriuria in 18 catheterised cats with obstructive lower urinary tract disease: a pilot study.. J Feline Med Surg 2013; 15: 843-848.
34 Hull R, Rudy D, Donovan W, Svanborg C, Wieser I, Stewart C, Darouiche R. Urinary tract infection prophylaxis using Escherichia coli 83972 in spinal cord injured patients.. J Urol 2000; 163: 872-877.
35 Huttner B, Harbarth S, Nathwani D. Success stories of implementation of antimicrobial stewardship: a narrative review.. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20: 954-962.
36 Ihrke P, Norton A, Ling G, Stannard A. Urinary tract infection associated with long-term corticosteroid administration in dogs with chronic skin diseases.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1985; 186: 43-46.
37 Jepson RG, Williams G, Craig JC. Cranberries for preventing urinary tract infections.. Cochrane library 2012; 10: CD001321
38 Johnson JR, Stamm WE. Urinary tract infections in women: diagnosis and treatment.. Ann Intern Med 1989; 111: 906-917.
39 Johnson JR, Clabots C. Sharing of virulent Escherichia coli clones among household members of a woman with acute cystitis.. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: e101-e108.
40 Johnson JR, Owens K, Gajewski A, Clabots C. Escherichia coli colonization patterns among human household members and pets, with attention to acute urinary tract infection.. J Infect Dis 2008; 197: 218-224.
41 Johnson JR, Clabots C, Kuskowski MA. Multiple-host sharing, long-term persistence, and virulence of Escherichia coli clones from human and animal household members.. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 4078-4082.
42 Jorgensen JH, Turnidge JD. Susceptibility test methods: dilution and disk diffusion methods. In: Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 11th edn.. American Society of Microbiology. 2015: 1253-1273.
43 Kietzmann M, Niedorf F, Kramer S, Hoffmann M, Schneider M, Valle M, Pankow R. Plasma and urine concentrations of marbofloxacin following single subcutaneous administration to cats.. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr 2011; 124: 83-88.
44 Klausner J, Osborne C, Stevens J. Clinical evaluation of commercial reagent strips for detection of significant bacteriuria in dogs and cats.. Am J Vet Res 1976; 37: 719-722.
45 Köves B, Cai T, Veeratterapillay R, Pickard R, Seisen T, Lam TB, Yuan CY, Bruyere F, Wagenlehner F, Bartoletti R. Benefits and harms of treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria: a systematic review and meta-analysis by the European Association of Urology Urological Infection Guidelines Panel.. Euro Urol 2017; 72: 865-868.
46 Kranjčec B, Papeš D. Altarac S. D-mannose powder for prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infections in women: a randomized clinical trial.. World J Urol 2014; 32: 79-84.
47 Kruger JM, Osborne CA, Goyal SM, Wickstrom SL, Johnston GR, Fletcher TF, Brown PA. Clinical evaluation of cats with lower urinary tract disease.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1991; 199: 211-216.
48 Lees G, Simpson R, Green R. Results of analyses and bacterial cultures of urine specimens obtained from clinically normal cats by three methods.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1984; 184: 449-454.
49 Lees GE, Rogers KS. Treatment of urinary tract infections in dogs and cats.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1986; 189: 648-652.
50 Lekcharoensuk C, Osborne CA, Lulich JP. Epidemiologic study of risk factors for lower urinary tract diseases in cats.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001; 218: 1429-1435.
51 Litster A, Moss SM, Honnery M, Rees B, Trott DJ. Prevalence of bacterial species in cats with clinical signs of lower urinary tract disease: recognition of Staphylococcus felis as a possible feline urinary tract pathogen.. Vet Microbiol 2007; 121: 182-188.
52 Litster A, Moss S, Platell J, Trott DJ. Occult bacterial lower urinary tract infections in cats – urinalysis and culture findings.. Vet Microbiol 2009; 136: 130-134.
53 Litster A, Thompson M, Moss S, Trott D. Feline bacterial urinary tract infections: An update on an evolving clinical problem.. Vet J 2011; 187: 18-22.
54 Lund HS, Krontveit RI, Halvorsen I, Eggertsdottir AV. Evaluation of urinalyses from untreated adult cats with lower urinary tract disease and healthy control cats: predictive abilities and clinical relevance.. J Feline Med Surg 2013; 15: 1086-1097.
55 Marques C, Gama LT, Belas A, Bergstrom K, Beurlet S, Briend-Marchal A, Broens EM, Costa M, Criel D, Damborg P, van Dijk MA, van Dongen AM, Dorsch R, Espada CM, Gerber B, Kritsepi-Konstantinou M, Loncaric I, Mion D, Misic D, Movilla R, Overesch G, Perreten V, Roura X, Steenbergen J, Timofte D, Wolf G, Zanoni RG, Schmitt S, Guardabassi L, Pomba C. European multicenter study on antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from companion animal urinary tract infections.. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12: 213
56 Martinez I, Mattoon JS, Eaton KA, Chew DJ, DiBartola SP. Polypoid cystitis in 17 dogs (1978-2001).. J Vet Intern Med 2003; 17: 499-509.
57 Martinez-Ruzafa I, Kruger JM, Miller R, Swenson CL, Bolin CA, Kaneene JB. Clinical features and risk factors for development of urinary tract infections in cats.. J Feline Med Surg 2012; 14: 729-740.
58 Mayer-Roenne B, Goldstein RE, Erb HN. Urinary tract infections in cats with hyperthyroidism, diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease.. J Feline Med Surg 2007; 9: 124-132.
59 McLaughlin SP, Carson CC. Urinary tract infections in women.. Med Clin North Am 2004; 88: 417-429.
60 Meiland R, Geerlings SE, Stolk RP, Netten PM, Schneeberger PM, Hoepelman AI. Asymptomatic bacteriuria in women with diabetes mellitus: effect on renal function after 6 years of follow-up.. JAMA Intern Med 2006; 166: 2222-2227.
61 Michaels E, Chmiel J, Plotkin B, Schaeffer A. Effect of D-mannose and D-glucose on Escherichia coli bacteriuria in rats.. Urol Res 1983; 11: 97-102.
62 Molstad S, Erntell M, Hanberger H, Melander E, Norman C, Skoog G, Lundborg CS, Soderstrom A, Torell E, Cars O. Sustained reduction of antibiotic use and low bacterial resistance: 10-year follow-up of the Swedish Strama programme.. Lancet Infect Dis 2008; 8: 125-132.
63 Morley PS, Apley MD, Besser TE, Burney DP, Fedorka-Cray PJ, Papich MG, Traub-Dargatz JL, Weese JS. Antimicrobial drug use in veterinary medicine.. J Vet Intern Med 2005; 19: 617-629.
64 Mydock-McGrane LK, Hannan TJ, Janetka JW. Rational design strategies for FimH antagonists: new drugs on the horizon for urinary tract infection and Crohn‘s disease.. Expert opinion on drug discovery 2017; 12: 711-731.
65 Nicolle LE, Bradley S, Colgan R, Rice JC, Schaeffer A, Hooton TM. Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in adults.. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 643-654.
66 Nicolle LE. The paradigm shift to non-treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria.. Pathogens 2016; 5: 2
67 Normand E, Gibson N, Reid S, Carmichael S, Taylor D. Antimicrobial-resistance trends in bacterial isolates from companion-animal community practice in the UK.. Prev Vet Med 2000; 46: 267-278.
68 O‘Neil E, Horney B, Burton S, Lewis PJ, MacKenzie A, Stryhn H. Comparison of wet-mount, Wright-Giemsa and Gram-stained urine sediment for predicting bacteriuria in dogs and cats.. Can Vet J 2013; 54: 1061-1066.
69 Oelschlaeger TA, Dobrindt U, Hacker J. Virulence factors of uropathogens.. Curr Opin Urol 2002; 12: 33-38.
70 Olby N, Vaden S, Williams K, Griffith E, Harris T, Mariani C, Muñana K, Early P, Platt S, Boozer L. Effect of cranberry extract on the frequency of bacteriuria in dogs with acute thoracolumbar disk herniation: A randomized controlled clinical trial.. J Vet Intern Med 2017; 31: 60-68.
71 Osborne CA, Lees GE. Bacterial infections of the canine and feline urinary tract. In: Canine and Feline Nephrology and Urology.. Osborne CA, Finco DR. eds Baltimoore: Williams and Wilkons; 1995: 759-797.
72 Padilla J, Osborne C, Ward G. Effects of storage time and temperature on quantitative culture of canine urine.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1981; 178: 1077-1081.
73 Papich MG. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing for feline urinary tract isolates.. J Feline Med Surg 2016; 18: 183-184.
74 Patterson CA, Bishop MA, Pack JD, Cook AK, Lawhon SD. Effects of processing delay, temperature, and transport tube type on results of quantitative bacterial culture of canine urine.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2016; 248: 183-187.
75 Pomba C, Endimiani A, Rossano A, Saial D, Couto N, Perreten V. First report of OXA-23-mediated carbapenem resistance in sequence type 2 multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii associated with urinary tract infection in a cat.. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58: 1267-1268.
76 Puchot ML, Cook AK, Pohlit C. Subclinical bacteriuria in cats: prevalence, findings on contemporaneous urinalyses and clinical risk factors.. J Feline Med Surg 2017; 19: 1238-1244.
77 Quint HJ, Drach GW, Rappaport WD, Hoffmann C. Emphysematous cystitis: a review of the spectrum of disease.. J Urol 1992; 147: 134-137.
78 Reyes K, Bardossy AC, Zervos M. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: epidemiology, infection prevention, and control.. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2016; 30: 953-965.
79 Root C, Scott R. Emphysematous cystitis and other radiographic manifestations of diabetes mellitus in dogs and cats.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1971; 158: 721
80 Saevik BK, Trangerud C, Ottesen N, Sorum H, Eggertsdottir AV. Causes of lower urinary tract disease in Norwegian cats.. J Feline Med Surg 2011; 13: 410-417.
81 Saint S, Lipsky BA. Preventing catheter-related bacteriuria: should we? Can we? How?. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 800-808.
82 Saunders A, Bartges J, Bemis D, Bryant M, Duckett R. Evaluation of blood agar plates and incandescent lighting for aerobic bacterial urine cultures.. J Vet Intern Med 2002; 16: 379
83 Schaeffer AJ. What do we know about the urinary tract infection-prone individual?. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: S66-S69.
84 Schaer M, Ackerman N, Ellison G, Spencer C. Bilateral pyonephrosis, hydroureter, renal failure, and urethral obstruction in a cat.. Feline Pract 1992; 20: 19-23.
85 Segev G, Sykes JE, Klumpp DJ, Schaeffer AJ, Antaki EM, Byrne BA, Yaggie RE, Westropp JL. Evaluation of the live biotherapeutic product, asymptomatic bacteriuria Escherichia coli 2-12, in healthy dogs and dogs with clinical recurrent UTI.. J Vet Intern Med 2018; 32: 267-273.
86 Seguin MA, Vaden SL, Altier C, Stone E, Levine JF. Persistent urinary tract infections and reinfections in 100 dogs (1989-1999).. J Vet Intern Med 2003; 17: 622-631.
87 Smarick SD, Haskins SC, Aldrich J, Foley JE, Kass PH, Fudge M, Ling GV. Incidence of catheter-associated urinary tract infection among dogs in a small animal intensive care unit.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004; 224: 1936-1940.
88 Smee N, Grauer G, Schermerhorn T. Investigations into the effect of cranberry extract on bacterial adhesion to canine uroeptihelial cells.. J Vet Intern Med 2011; 25: 716
89 Sorensen TM, Jensen AB, Damborg P, Bjornvad CR, Guardabassi L, Jessen LR. Evaluation of different sampling methods and criteria for diagnosing canine urinary tract infection by quantitative bacterial culture.. Vet J 2016; 216: 168-173.
90 Stamey TA, Fair WR, Timothy MM, Millar MA, Mihara G, Lowery YC. Serum versus urinary antimicrobial concentrations in cure of urinary-tract infections.. N Engl J Med 1974; 291: 1159-1163.
91 Stamm WE, Counts GW, Wagner KF, Martin D, Gregory D, McKevitt M, Turck M, Holmes KK. Antimicrobial prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infections: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 770-775.
92 Stenske KA, Bemis DA, Gillespie BE, Oliver SP, Draughon FA, Matteson KJ, Bartges JW. Prevalence of urovirulence genes cnf, hlyD, sfa/foc, and papGIII in fecal Escherichia coli from healthy dogs and their owners.. Am J Vet Res 2009; 70: 1401-1406.
93 Sundén F, Håkansson L, Ljunggren E, Wullt B. Escherichia coli 83972 bacteriuria protects against recurrent lower urinary tract infections in patients with incomplete bladder emptying.. J Urol 2010; 184: 179-185.
94 Swenson CL, Boisvert AM, Gibbons-Burgener SN, Kruger JM. Evaluation of modified Wright-staining of dried urinary sediment as a method for accurate detection of bacteriuria in cats.. Vet Clin Pathol 2011; 40: 256-264.
95 Sykes JEW, Jodi L. Bacterial infection of the genitourinary tract. In: Canine and Feline Infectious Diseases.. Sykes JE. ed St. Louis: Saunders; 2013: 871-885.
96 Teichmann-Knorrn S, Reese S, Wolf G, Hartmann K, Dorsch R. Prevalence of feline urinary tract pathogens and antimicrobial resistance over five years. Vet Rec 2018 Published Online First: 05 April 20doi: 10.1136/ vr.104440
97 Wagner S, Gally DL, Argyle SA. Multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli from canine urinary tract infections tend to have commensal phylotypes, lower prevalence of virulence determinants and ampC-replicons.. Vet Microbiol 2014; 169: 171-178.
98 Weese JS, Blondeau JM, Boothe D, Breitschwerdt EB, Guardabassi L, Hillier A, Lloyd DH, Papich MG, Rankin SC, Turnidge JD, Sykes JE. Antimicrobial use guidelines for treatment of urinary tract disease in dogs and cats: antimicrobial guidelines working group of the international society for companion animal infectious diseases.. Vet Med Int 2011; 2011: 263768
99 Wellens A, Garofalo C, Nguyen H, Van Gerven N, Slättegård R, Hernalsteens J-P, Wyns L, Oscarson S, De Greve H, Hultgren S. Intervening with urinary tract infections using anti-adhesives based on the crystal structure of the FimH-oligomannose-3 complex.. PloS one 2008; 3: e2040
100 Westropp JL, Sykes JE, Irom S, Daniels JB, Smith A, Keil D, Settje T, Wang Y, Chew DJ. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of high dose short duration enrofloxacin treatment regimen for uncomplicated urinary tract infections in dogs.. J Vet Intern Med 2012; 26: 506-512.
101 White JD, Stevenson M, Malik R, Snow D, Norris JM. Urinary tract infections in cats with chronic kidney disease.. J Feline Med Surg 2013; 15: 459-465.
102 White JD, Cave NJ, Grinberg A, Thomas DG, Heuer C. Subclinical bacteriuria in older cats and its association with survival.. J Vet Intern Med 2016; 30: 1824-1829.
103 Wolfe TM, Hostutler RA, Chew DJ, McLoughlin MA, Eaton KA. Surgical management of diffuse polypoid cystitis using submucosal resection in a dog.. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2010; 46: 281-284.