Zusammenfassung
Beta-Blocker gehören zu den erfolgreichsten Substanzklassen der Medizin. Meist werden
sie in der Inneren Medizin eingesetzt. In der Psychiatrie wurden Beta-Blocker erstmals
vor 40 Jahren bei Angstpatienten angewandt. Seitdem wurde die Wirksamkeit von Beta-Blockern
bei schizophrenen und manischen Psychosen, bei vegetativen Entzugssymptomen und bei
aggressiven Verhaltensstörungen untersucht. Ebenso werden Beta-Blocker bei unerwünschten
Wirkungen von Psychopharmaka, wie Neuroleptika- oder Antidepressiva-induzierten Tachykardien,
Lithium-induziertem Tremor, Neuroleptika-induzierter Akathisie sowie bei Spätdyskinesien
eingesetzt. Seit Mitte der 90er Jahre wurden Augmentationsstrategien einer antidepressiven
Pharmakotherapie mit dem serotonerg wirksamen Beta-Blocker Pindolol entwickelt. Traumatische
Gedächtnisinhalte werden unter noradrenerger Aktivierung vermutlich vermehrt gespeichert.
Aus diesem Grund wird der lipidlösliche, die Bluthirnschranke gut passierende Beta-Blocker
Propranolol seit einigen Jahren bei Patienten mit posttraumatischer Belastungsstörung
(PTSD) versuchsweise eingesetzt. Basierend auf einer umfassenden Literaturübersicht
diskutiert der vorliegende Artikel sämtliche Indikationen für Beta-Blocker im Bereich
der Psychiatrie. Unter Berücksichtigung evidenzbasierter Leitlinienaspekte sind Beta-Blocker
beim Lithium-induzierten Tremor, bei Neuroleptika-induzierter Akathisie und bei aggressivem
Verhalten von Patienten mit hirnorganischen Störungen indiziert.
Abstract
Beta-adrenoceptor blockers belong to the most successful drug classes of medicine.
Mainly they are used in internal medicine. 40 years ago beta-adrenoceptor blockers
have occasionally been used in psychiatry for the treatment of anxiety disorders.
Over the past four decades, the effects of beta-adrenoceptor blockers in the treatment
of schizophrenic and manic psychoses, withdrawal syndromes and aggressive behaviour
with temper outbursts has been investigated. Beta-adrenoceptor blockers are also used
in the treatment of side-effects of psychopharmacological agents like neuroleptic
or antidepressant-induced tachycardias, lithium-induced tremor, antipsychotic-induced
akathisia or tardive dyskinesia as well. Since the mid-nineties it has been attempted
to improve the efficacy of antidepressant agents by means of the 5-HT-1a-receptorantagonist pindolol. Presumedly memory consolidation of traumatic events
can be enhanced by adrenergic activation. Therefore some open clinical trials investigated
the effects of propranolol, a lipid soluble drug, which crosses the blood-brain barrier
easily, to reduce the manifestation of PTSD. The present review presents the results
of the literature with respect to the indications for beta-blockers in psychiatry.
Considering evidence-based-medicine criteria beta-blockers are indicated to treat
lithium-induced tremor, antipsychotic-induced akathisia and to reduce aggressive behavior
of patients with brain-injuries.
Schlüsselwörter
Beta-Blocker - Psychiatrische Erkrankungen - Antiaggressive Wirkungen - Lithium-induzierter
Tremor - Akathisie - Tardive Dyskinesien - Pindolol-Augmentation von Antidepressiva
- Posttraumatische Belastungsstörung (PTSD)
Key words
beta-adrenoceptor blockers - psychiatric disorders - antiaggressive effects - lithium-induced
tremor - akathisia, tardive dyskinesia - pindolol-augmentation of antidepressant agents
- posttraumatic-stress disorder (PTSD)
Literatur
- 1
Granville-Grossman K L, Turner P.
The effect of propranolol and anxiety.
Lancet.
1966;
1
788-790
- 2
Modestin J.
Beta-Rezeptorenblocker in der Psychiatrie.
Fortschr Neurol Psychiat.
1976;
44
579-596
- 3
Floru L.
Die Anwendung betablockierender Substanzen in der Psychiatrie und Neurologie.
Fortschr Neurol Psychiat.
1977;
45
112-127
- 4 Borchard U. Beta-Rezeptoren-Blocker. Definition, Einteilung, Chemie, Pharmakologie,
Neurobiochemie, Wirkmechanismus. In: Riederer P, Laux G, Pöldinger W (Hrsg). Neuropsychopharmaka
Bd. 6. Wien, New York: Springer 1993: 99-110
- 5
Jefferson J W.
Beta-adrenergic receptor blocking drugs in psychiatry.
Arch Gen Psychiatry.
1974;
31
681-691
- 6
Whitlock F A, Price J.
Use of beta-adrenergic receptor blocking drugs in psychiatry.
Drugs.
1974;
8
109-124
- 7
Kelly D.
Clinical review of beta-blockers in anxiety.
Pharmacopsychiatry.
1980;
13
259-266
- 8 Suzman M M. Use of beta-adrenergic receptor blocking agents in psychiatry. In: Palmer
CG (ed). Neuro-pharmacology of central nervous system and behavioral disorders. London,
New York: Academic Press 1980: 339-391
- 9
Lader M.
Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists in Neuropsychiatry: an update.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1988;
49
213-223
- 10 Wetzel H, Benkert O. Beta-Blocker bei psychiatrischen Erkrankungen. In: Grosdanoff
P, Kaindl F, Kraupp O, Lehnert T, Lichtlen P, Schuster J, Siegenthaler W (Hrsg). Beta-Rezeptoren
und Beta-Rezeptorenblocker. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter 1988: 339-349
- 11 Gastpar M, Rimpel J. Beta-Rezeptoren-Blocker. Klinik. In: Riederer P, Laux G, Pöldinger
W (Hrsg). Neuro-Psychopharmaka. Bd. 6. Wien, New York: Springer 1993: 111-124
- 12
Gleiter C H, Deckert J.
Adverse CNS-effects of beta-adrenoceptor blockers.
Pharmacopsychiat.
1996;
29
201-211
- 13
Bailly D.
The role of Beta-adrenoceptor blockers in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
CNS Drugs.
1996;
5
115-136
- 14
Atsmon A, Blum I.
Treatment of acute porphyria variegata with propranolol.
Lancet.
1970;
1
196-197
- 15
Schwarz D, Martin J.
Die Anwendung von Propranolol bei der akuten intermittierenden Porphyrie.
Nervenarzt.
1973;
44
648-651
- 16 Emrich H M. ZNS-Aktivität von Beta-Rezeptorenblockern und ihre Anwendung in der
Neurologie und Psychiatrie-interdisziplinäre Bewertung. München, Bern, Wien: Zuckschwerdt
1985: 65-75
- 17
Delini-Stula A, Meier M.
Inhibitory effects of propranolol and oxprenolol on excitation by a MAO inhibitor
and reserpine in the mouse.
Neuropharmacol.
1976;
15
383-388
- 18
Vassout A, Delini-Stula A.
Effects de beta-bloquers (propranolol et oxprenolol) et du diazepam sur differrents
modeles d'aggressivité chez le rat.
J Pharmacol (paris).
1977;
8
5-14
- 19 Bernasconi R. The GABA hypothesis of affective illness. Influence of clinically
effective antimanic drugs on GABA turnover. In: Emrich HM, Aldenhoff JB, Lux HD (eds).
Basic mechanisms in the action of lithium. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica 1982: 183-192
- 20
Berlant J L.
One more look at propranolol for treatment of refractory schizophrenia.
Schizophr Bull.
1987;
13
705-714
- 21
Wahlbeck K, Cheine M V, Gibody S, Ahonen J.
Efficacy of beta-blocker supplementation for schizophrenia: a systematic review of
randomized trials.
Schizophrenia Research.
2000;
41
341-347
- 22
Atsmon A, Blum I, Steiner M, Latz A, Wijsenbeck H.
Further studies with propranolol.
Lancet.
1970;
1
196-197
- 23
Volk W, Bier W, Braun J P, Grüter W, Spiegelberg U.
Behandlung von erregten Psychosen mit einem Beta-Rezeptorenblocker (Oxprenolol) in
hoher Dosierung.
Nervenarzt.
1972;
43
491-492
- 24
Rackensberger W, Fritsch W, Schwarz D, Stutte K H, Zerssen D v.
Wirkung des Beta-Blockers Propranolol auf Manien.
Arch Psychiat Nervenkr.
1976;
222
222-243
- 25
Emrich H M, Zerssen Dv Möller H J, Kissling W, Cording C, Schietsch H J, Riedel E.
Action of propranolol in mania: comparison of effects on the d- and i-stereoisomer.
Pharmacopsychiat.
1979;
12
295-304
- 26
Tyrer P J.
Use of beta-blocking drugs in psychiatry and neurology.
Drugs.
1980;
20
300-308
- 27
Rosenthal N E, Jacobsen F M, Sack D A, Arendt J, James S P, Parry B, Wehr T.
Atenolol in seasonal affective disorder: a test of the melatonin hypothesis.
Am J Psychiatry.
1988;
154
534-535
- 28
Schlager D S.
Early-morning administration of short-acting beta-blockers for treatment of winter
depression.
Am J Psychiatry.
1994;
151
1383-1385
- 29
Rausch J L, Janowski D S, Golshan S, Kuhn K, Risch S C.
Atenolol treatment of late luteal phase disorder.
J Affective Disord.
1988;
15
141-147
- 30
Agelink M W, Dammers S, Malessa R, Leonhardt M, Zitzelsberger A, Ullrich H, Zeit T.
Nutzen und Risiken der Elektrokrampfbehandlung (EKT) bei älteren Patienten mit kardiovaskulären
Risikofaktoren.
Nervenarzt.
1998;
69
70-75
- 31
Stoudemire A, Knos G, Gladson M, Markwalter H, Sung Y F, Morris R, Cooper R.
Labetalol in the control of cardiovascular response to electroconvulsive therapy in
high-risked depressed medical patients.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1990;
51
508-512
- 32
Gaines G Y, Rees D I.
Anesthetic considerations for electro-convulsive therapy.
South Med J.
1992;
85
469-482
- 33
Figiel G S, DeLeo B, Zorumski C F, Baker K, Goewert A, Jarvis M, Smith D S, Mattingly G,
Ruwitch J.
Combined use of labetalol and nifedipine in controlling the cardiovascular response
from ECT.
J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol.
1993;
6
20-24
- 34
Castelli I, Steiner L A, Kaufmann M A, Alfille P H, Schouten R, Welch C A, Drop L J.
Comparative effects of esmolol and labetalol to attenuate hyperdynamic states after
electroconvulsive therapy.
Anesth Analg.
1995;
80
557-561
- 35
London S W, Glass D D.
Prevention of electroconvulsive therapy-induced dysrhythmias with atropine and propranolol.
Anestesiology.
1985;
62
819-822
- 36
Hawken E R, Delva N J, Lawson J S.
Sucessfull use of propranolol in migraine associated with electroconvulsive therapy.
Headeache.
2001;
41
92-96
- 37
Kales A, Cadieux R, Soldatos C R, Tan T L.
Sucessful treatment of narcolepsy with propranolol.
Arch Neurol.
1979a;
36
650-651
- 38
Kales A, Soldatos C R, Cadieux R, Bixler E O, Tan T L, Sharf M B.
Propranolol in the treatment of narcolepsy.
Ann Intern Med.
1979b;
91
741-743
- 39
Meier-Ewert K, Matsubayashi K, Benter L.
Propranolol: long-term treatment in narcolepsy-cataplaxy.
Sleep.
1985;
8
95-104
- 40
De Leersnyder H, De Blois M C, Vekemans M, Sidi D, Villian E, Kindermans C, Munnich A.
Beta-1-adrenergic antagonists improve sleep and behavioral disturbances in a circadian
disorder, Smith-Magenis syndrome.
J Med Genet.
2001;
38
586-590
- 41
De Leersnyder H, De Blois M C, Bresson J L, Sidi D, Claustrat B, Munnich A.
Inversion of the circadian melatonin rhythm in Smith-Magenis syndrome.
Rev Neurol (Paris).
2003a;
159 (Suppl)
6S21-S26
- 42
De Leersnyder H, Bresson J L, De Blois M C, Souberbielle J C, Mogenet A, Delhotal-Landes B,
Salefranque F, Munnich A.
Beta-1-adrenergic antagonists and metatonin reset the clock and restore sleep in a
circadian disorder, Smith Magenis syndrome.
J Med Genet.
2003b;
40
74-78
- 43
Shevitz S A, Jameison R C, Petrie W M, Cook J E.
Compulsive water drinking treated with high dose propranolol.
J Nerv Ment Dis.
1980;
168
246-248
- 44
Goldstein M B, Folsom T.
The sucessful treatment of psychogenic polydipsia and water intoxication with propranolol.
A case report.
Minn Med.
1991;
74
29-32
- 45
Kishi Y, Kurosawa H, Endo S.
Is propranolol effective in primary polydipsia?.
Int J Psychiatry Med.
1998;
28
315-325
- 46
Steinert T.
Neuere Tendenzen in der Pharmakotherapie aggressiven Verhaltens bei psychisch Kranken.
Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr.
1992;
60
393-400
- 47 Steinert T. Aggression. In: Faust V (Hrsg). Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Klinik,
Praxis und Beratung. Stuttgart, Jena, New York: G. Fischer 1995: 483-400
- 48
Volavka J.
Can aggressive behaviour in humans be modified by beta blockers?.
Postgrad Med.
1988;
163
8
- 49
Elliot F A.
Propranolol for control belligerent behavior following acute brain damage.
Ann Neurol.
1976;
1
489-491
- 50
Schreier H A.
Use of propranolol in the treatment of postencephalitic psychosis.
Am J Psychiatry.
1979;
139
840-841
- 51
Yudofsky S C, Williams D, Gorman J.
Propranolol in the treatment of rage and violent behavior in patients with chronic
brain syndromes.
Am J Psychiatry.
1981;
138
218-220
- 52
Mansheim P.
Treatment with propranolol of the behavioral sequelae of brain damage.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1981;
42
132
- 53
Ratey J J, Morrill R, Oxenkrug G.
Use of propranolol and unprovoked episodes of rage.
Am J Psychiatry.
183;
140
1356-1357
- 54
Yudofsky S C, Stevens L, Silver J, Barsa J, Williams D.
Propranolol in the treatment of rage and violent behavior associated with korsakoff
psychosis.
Am J Psychiatry.
1984;
141
114-115
- 55
Roach N E, George M D, Skoch M G.
Propranolol for episodic dyscontrol syndrome.
J Kans Med Soc.
1984;
85
240-241
- 56
Jenkins S C, Maruta T.
Therapeutic use of propranolol for intermittant explosive behavior.
Mayo Clin Proc.
1987;
62
204-214
- 57
Ratey J J, Mikkelsen E, Sorgi P, Zuckerman H S, Polakoff S, Bemporad J, Bick P, Kadish W.
Autism: the treatment of aggressive behaviors.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1987a;
7
35-41
- 58
Ratey J J, Bemporad J, Sorgi P, Bick P, Polakoff S, O'Drisdoll G, Mikkelsen E.
Open trial effects of beta-blockers on speech and social behaviors in 8 autistic adults.
J Autism Dev Disord.
1987b;
17
439-446
- 59
Stewart J T, Mounts M L, Clark J L.
Aggressive behavior in Huntington' disease: treatment with propranolol.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1987;
48
385-386
- 60
Abraham G, Jarett M B.
Propranolol in the treatment of postencephalitic psychosis.
Can J Psychiatry.
1990;
35
104-105
- 61
Ruedrich S L, Grush L, Wilson J.
Beta-adrenergic blocking medications for aggressive or self-injurious mentally retarded
persons.
Am J Ment Retard.
1990;
95
110-119
- 62
Sims J, Galvin M R.
Pediatric psychopharmacologic uses of propranolol.
J Child Adol Psychiatric Ment Health Nurs.
1990;
3
18-24
- 63
Cohen I L, Tsiouris J A, Pfadt A.
Effect of long-acting propranolol on agonistic and stereotypical behaviors in a man
with pervasive developmental disorder and fragile-X-Syndrome: a double-blind, placebo-controlled
study.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1991;
11
398-399
- 64
Lang C, Remington D.
Treatment of impulsive and aggressive behavior in a blind, deaf, retarded adolescent.
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.
1994;
33
265-269
- 65
Steinert T.
Behandlung autoaggressiver Erregungszustände bei geistiger Behinderung mit Propranolol.
Psychopharmakotherapie.
1998;
5
26-28
- 66
Reynolds E H.
The pharmacological management of epilepsy associated with psychological disorders.
Br J Psychiatry.
1982;
141
549-557
- 67
Williams D T, Mehl R, Yudofsky S, Adams D, Roseman B.
The effect of propranolol on uncontrolled rage outbursts in children and adolescents
with organic brain dysfunction.
J Am Acad Child Psychiatry.
1982;
21
129-135
- 68
Leon Z, Alonso J L, Basterrechea L.
Acción del propranolol en la agresividad de los oligofrénicos encefalopáticos.
J Int Defectologia en el Hogar de Impedidos Físicos y Mentales.
1983;
4
431-436
- 69
Mattes J A, Rosenberg J, Mays D.
Carbamazepine versus propranolol in patients with uncontrolled rage outbursts: a random
assignment study.
Psychopharmacol Bull.
1984;
20
98-100
- 70
Greendyke R M, Schuster D B, Wooton J A.
Propranolol in the treatment of assautive patients with organic brain disease.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1984;
4
282-284
- 71
Ratey J J, Mikkelsen E J, Smith G B, Upadhyaya A, Zuckerman H S, Martell D, Sorgi P,
Polakoff S, Bemporad J.
Beta blockers in the severely and profoundly mentally retarded.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1986;
6
103-107
- 72
Kuperman S, Stewart M.
Use of propranolol to decrease aggressive outbursts in younger patients.
Psychosomatics.
1987;
28
315-319
- 73
Luchins D J, Dojka M S.
Lithium and propranolol in aggression and self-injurious behavior in the mentally
retarded.
Psychopharmacol Bull.
1989;
25
372-375
- 74
Silver J M, Yudofsky S C, Slater J A, Kugelmass-Gold R, Katz-Stryrer B L, Williams D T,
Wolland H, Endicott J.
Propranolol treatment of chronically hospitalized aggressive patients.
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci.
1999;
11
328-335
- 75
Greendyke R M, Kanter D R, Schuster D B, Verstraete S, Wooton J.
Propranolol in the treatment of assaultive patients with organic brain disease.
J Nerv Ment Dis.
1986;
174
290-294
- 76
Greendyke R M, Berkner J P, Webster J C, Gulya A.
Treatment of behavioral problems with pindolol.
Psychosomatics.
1989;
30
161-165
- 77
Greendyke R M, Kanter D R.
Therapeutic effects of pindolol on behavioral disturbances associated with organic
brain disease: a double-blind study.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1986;
47
423-426
- 78
Brooke M M, Pattersen D R, Questad K A, Cardenas D, Farrel-Roberts L.
The treatment of agitation during initial hospitalization after traumatic brain injury.
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
1992;
73
917-921
- 79
Petrie W M, Ban T A.
Propranolol in organic agitation.
Lancet.
1981;
1
324
- 80
Jenike M A.
Treating the violent elderly patient with propranolol.
Geriatrics.
1983;
38
29-31
- 81
Salzman C.
Treating of the agitated demented elderly patient.
Hosp Community Psychiatry.
1988;
39
1143-1144
- 82
Weiler P G, Mungas D, Bernick C.
Propranolol for control of disruptive behavior in senile dementia.
J Geriatr Psychiatry and Neurol.
1988;
1
226-230
- 83
Jensen J F.
Hypersexual agitation in Alzheimer's disease.
J Am Geriatr Soc.
1989;
27
917
- 84
Schneider L S, Solin P B.
Non-neuroleptic medications in the management of agitation in Alzheimer's disease
and other dementia:.
a selective review. Int J Geriatr, Psychiatry.
1191;
6
691-708
- 85
Maletta G J.
Treatment of behavioral symptomatology of Alzheimer's disease with emphasis on aggression.
Current clinical approaches.
Int Psychogeriatr.
1992;
4 (Suppl 1)
117-130
- 86
Peskind E R, Tsuang D W, Bonner L T, Pascualy M, Riekse R G, Snowdon M B, Thomas R,
Raskind M A.
Propranolol for disruptive behaviors in nursing home residents with problable or possible
Alzheimer disease: a placebo-controlled study.
Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord.
2005;
19
23-28
- 87
Williams D T, Mehl R, Yudofsky S, Adams D, Roseman B.
The effect of propranolol on uncontrolled rage outbursts in children and adolescents
with organic brain dysfunction.
J Am Acad Child Psychiatry.
1982;
21
129-135
- 88
Wender P H.
Concurrent therapy with d-amphetamine and adrenergic drugs.
Am J Psychiatry.
1986;
143
259-260
- 89
Mattes J A.
Propranolol for adults with temper outbursts and residual attention deficit disorder.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1986;
6
299-302
- 90
Mattes J A.
Carbamazepine vs. propranolol for rage outbursts.
Psychopharmacol Bull.
1988;
24
179-182
- 91
Mattes J A.
Comparative effectiveness of carbamazepine and propranolol for rage outbursts.
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci.
1990;
2
159-164
- 92
Ratey J J, Greenberg M S, Lindem K J.
Combination treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults.
J Nerv Ment Dis.
1991;
179
699-701
- 93
Buitellaar J K, Gaag R J van der, Swaab-Barneveld H, Kuiper M.
Pindolol and methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder.
Clinical efficacy and side-effects.
J Clin Psychol Psychiat.
1996;
37
587-595
- 94
Jenkins S C, Maruta T.
Therapeutic use of propranolol for intermittant explosive behavior.
Mayo Clin Pro.
1987;
62
204-214
- 95
Grizenko N, Vida S.
Propranolol treatment of episodic dyscontrol and aggressive behavior in children.
Can J Psychiatry.
1988;
33
776-778
- 96
Kastner T, Burlingham K, Friedman D L.
Metoprolol for aggressive behavior in persons with mental retardation.
Am Fam Physician.
1990;
42
1585-1588
- 97
Arnold L E, Aman M G.
Beta blockers in mental retardation and developmental disorders.
J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacology.
1991;
1
361-373
- 98
Matthews-Ferrari K, Karroum N.
Metoprolol for aggression.
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.
1992;
31
994
- 99
Connor D F.
Beta-blockers for aggression: a review of the pediatric experience.
J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacology.
1993;
3
99-114
- 100
Riddle M A, Bernstein G A, Cook E H, Leonhard H L, March J S, Swanson J M.
Anxiolytics, adrenergic agents and naltrexone.
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.
1999;
38
546-556
- 101
Whitman J R, Maier G J, Eichelman B.
Beta-blockers for aggressive behavior in schizophrenia.
Am J Psychiatry.
1987;
144
538
- 102
Sorgi P J, Ratey J J, Polakoff S.
Beta-adrenergic blockers for the control of aggressive behaviors in patients with
chronic schizophrenia.
Am J Psychiatry.
1986;
143
775-776
- 103
Pugh C R, Steinert J, Priest R G.
Propranolol in schizophrenia: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial of propranolol
as an adjunct to neuroleptic medication.
Br J Psychiatry.
1983;
143
151-155
- 104
Ritrovato C A, Weber S S, Dufresne R L.
Nadolol in the treatment of aggressive behavior associated with schizophrenia.
Clin Pharm.
1989;
8
132-135
- 105
Alpert M, Allan E R, Citrome L, Laury G, Sudilovsky A.
A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of adjunctive nadolol in the management of
violent psychiatric patients.
Psychopharmacol Bull.
1990;
26
367-371
- 106
Ratey J J, Sorgi P, O'Driscoll G A, Sands S, Daehler M, Fletcher J R, Kadish W, Spuiell G,
Polakoff S, Lindem K, Bemporad J R, Richardson L, Rosenfeld B.
Nadolol to treat aggression and psychiatric symptomatology in chronic psychiatric
inpatients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1992;
53
41-46
- 107
Allan E R, Alpert M, Sison C E, Citrome L, Laury G, Bermann I.
Adjunctive nadolol in the treatment of acutely aggressive schizophrenic patients.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1996;
57
455-459
- 108
Caspi N, Modai I, Barak P, Waisbourd A, Zbarsky H, Hirschman S, Ritsner M.
Pindolol augmentation in aggressive schizophrenic patients: a double-blind crossover
randomized study.
Int Clin Psychopharmacology.
2001;
16
111-115
- 109
Floru L.
Klinische Behandlungsversuche des lithiumbedingten Tremors durch Betarezeptorantagonisten
(Propranolol).
Int Pharmacopsychiat.
1971;
6
197-222
- 110
Kirk L, Baastrup P C, Schou M.
Propranolol and lithium-induced tremor.
Lancet.
1972;
1
839
- 111
Kirk L, Baastrup P C, Schou M.
Propranolol treatment of lithium-induced tremor.
Lancet.
1973a;
2
1086-1087
- 112
Kirk L, Baastrup P C, Schou M.
Propranololbehandlung bei Lithiumtremor.
Nervenarzt.
1973b;
44
657-658
- 113
Lapierre Y D.
Control of lithium tremor with propranolol.
Canad Med Ass.
1976;
114
619-621
- 114
Floru L, Floru L, Tegeler J.
Wirkung von Beta-Rezeptorenblockern (Pindolol und Practolol) auf den lithiumbedingten
Tremor.
Arzneim Forsch.
1974;
24
1122-1125
- 115
Floru L, Tegeler J, Wolmsen H.
Untersuchungen des lithiumbedingten Tremors mit verschiedenen Messmethoden.
Int Pharmacopsychiat.
1979;
14
149-157
- 116 Brosteanu E, Floru L, Kaiser H. Die Behandlung des lithiumbedingten Tremors mit
Oxprenolol im Doppelblindversuch gegen Plazebo. In: Kielholz P (Hrsg). Betablocker
und Zentralnervensystem. Bern, Stuttgart, Wien: Huber 1978: 187-193
- 117
Gaby N C, Lefkowitz D S, Israel J R.
Treatment of lithium tremor with metoprolol.
Am J Psychiatry.
1983;
140
593-595
- 118
Zubenko G S.
Comparison of metoprolol and propranolol in the treatment of lithium tremor.
Psychiat Res.
1984;
11
163-164
- 119
Davé M.
Treatment of lithium induced tremor with atenolol.
Can J Psychiatry.
1989;
34
132-133
- 120
Kruse J M, Ereshefsky L, Scavone M.
Treatment of lithium-induced tremor with nadolol.
Clin Pharm.
1984;
3
299-301
- 121
Davé M, Langbart M M.
Nadolol for lithium tremor in the presence of liver damage.
Ann Clin Psychiatry.
1994;
6
51-52
- 122
Schou M, Vestergaard P.
Use of propranolol during lithium treatment: an enquiry and a suggestion.
Pharmacopsychiat.
1987;
20
131
- 123 Brüne M, Bräunig P. Kompendium der Akathisie. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme 1997a
- 124
Fleischhacker W W, Roth S D, Kane J M.
The pharmacologic treatment of neuroleptic-induced akathisia.
J Clin Psycho-pharmacol.
1990;
10
12-21
- 125
Brüne M, Bräunig P.
Akathisie.
Fortschr Neurol Psychiat.
1997b;
65
396-406
- 126
Schönecker M.
Ein eigentümliches Syndrom im oralen Bereich bei Megaphenapplikation.
Nervenarzt.
1957;
27
35
- 127
Lohr J B, Kuczenski R, Niculescu A B.
Oxidative mechanisms and tardive dyskinesia.
CNS Drugs.
2003;
17
47-62
- 128
Moreira M JC, Karniol I G.
Improvement of tardive dyskinesia with high doses of propranolol: a case report.
Rev Paul Med.
1979;
93
76-78
- 129
Roberts P W.
The use of propranolol in treating tardive dyskinesia.
Can Med Assoc J.
1980;
6
1106-1107
- 130
Kulik F A, Wilbur R.
Propranolol for tardive dyskinesia and extrapyramidal effects (pseudoparkinsonism)
from neuroleptics.
Psychopharmacol Bull.
1980;
16
18-19
- 131
Wilbur R, Kulik F A.
Propranolol (Inderal) for tardive dyskinesia and extrapyramidal side effects from
neuroleptics.
Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol.
1980;
4
627-632
- 132
Ayd F J.
Propranolol therapy for tardive dyskinesia.
Drug Ther Newsletter.
1981;
16
29-31
- 133
Einarson T R.
Use of propranolol in treating tardive dyskinesia.
Can Med Assoc J.
1981;
124
1260-1262
- 134
Chaudhry R, Radonjic D, Waters B.
Efficacy of propranolol in a patient with tardive dyskinesia and extrapyramidal syndrome.
Am J Psychiatry.
1982;
139
674-676
- 135
Pitts Jr F N.
Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with propranolol.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1982;
43
304
- 136
Olivera A A, Kiefer M W.
Propranolol therapy in a patient with panic disorder, tardive dyskinesia, and essential
tremor.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1984;
45
484-485
- 137
Novac A.
Improvement in tardive dyskinesia and MMPI scores with propranolol.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1986;
47
218-219
- 138
Kalian M, Lerner V, Goldman M.
Atypical variants of tardive dyskinesia, treated by a combination of clozapine with
propranolol and clozapine with tetrabenazine.
J Ner Ment Dis.
1993;
181
649-651
- 139
Bacher N M, Lewis H A.
Low-dose propranolol in tardive dyskinesia.
Am J Psychiatry.
1980;
137
495-497
- 140
Schrodt Jr G R, Wright J H, Simpson R, Moore D P, Chase S.
Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with propranolol.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1982;
43
328-331
- 141
Perenyi A, Farkas A.
Propranolol in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia.
Biol Psychiatry.
1983;
18
391-394
- 142 Wright J H, Schrodt G R, Simpson R, Moore D P, Davis B. Propranolol treatment
of tardive dyskinesia: preliminary report of a placebo-controlled study. Stockholm:
III. World Congress of Biological Psychiatry 1981 Vol. 2: F 528
- 143
Karniol I G, Portera W.
Oxprenolol in schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia: a double-blind placebo-controlled,
crossover study.
Braz J Med Res.
1982;
15
389-394
- 144
Hebenstreit G F, Hoffmann H, Hoffmann W, Pittner H.
Betablockade mit Celiprolol bei neuroleptikabehandelten Patienten mit tardiver Dyskinesie.
Wien Klin Wochenschr.
1986;
98
388-392
- 145
Cordes J, Mobascher A, Arends M, Agelink M, Klimke A.
Eine neue Methode zur Behandlung von Depressionen: repetitive transkranielle Magnetstimulation.
Dtsch Med Wochenschr.
2005;
130
889-892
- 146
de Montigny C, Chaput Y, Blier P.
Classical and novel targets for antidepressant drugs.
Intl Acad Biomed and Drug Res.
1993;
5
76-78
- 147
Artigas F, Perez V, Alvarez E.
Pindolol induces rapid improvement of depressed patient treated with serotonin reuptake
inhibitors.
Arch Gen Psychiatry.
1994;
51
248-251
- 148
Kraus R P.
Pindolol augmentation of trancylpromine in psychotic depression.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1997;
17
225-226
- 149
Bell C, Wilson S, Nutt D J.
Pindolol augmentation of sertralin in resistant depression and its effect on sleep.
J Psychopharmacol.
1998;
12
105-107
- 150
Blier P, Bergeron R.
Effectiveness of pindolol with selected antidepressant drugs in the treatment of major
depression.
J Clin Psychopharmacology.
1995;
15
217-222
- 151
Vinar O, Vinarova E, Horacek J.
Pindolol accelerates the therapeutic action of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRI) in depression.
Homeostasis.
1996;
37
93-95
- 152
Bakish D, Hooper C L, Thornton M D, Wiens A, Miller C A, Thibaudeau C A.
Fast onset: an open study of the treatment of major depressive disorder with nefazodone
and pindolol combination therapy.
Int Clin Psychopharmacol.
1997;
12
91-97
- 153
Blier P, Bergeron R, de Montigny C.
Selective activation of postsynaptic 5-HT-1A receptors induces rapid antidepressant response.
Neuropsychopharmacology.
1997;
16
333-338
- 154
Erfurth A, Kammerer C, Ackenheil M, Möller H J.
Effect of pindolol in hastening response to serotonergic anti-depressants: an open
study in severely depressed female inpatients.
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol.
1997;
7 (Suppl. 2)
S147-147
- 155
Beique J C, Blier P, de Montigny C.
Potentiation by (-) pindolol of the activation of postsynaptic 5-HT(1A)-receptors
induced by venlafaxine.
Neuropsychopharmacology.
2000;
23
294-306
- 156
Dursun S M, Devarajan S, Kutcher S.
The “dalhousie serotonin cocktail” for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder.
J Psychopharmacology.
2001;
15
136-138
- 157
Berman R M, Darnell A M, Miller H L, Anand A, Charney D S.
Effect of pindolol in hastening response to fluoxetin in the treatment of major depression:
a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Am J Psychiatry.
1997;
154
37-43
- 158
Moreno F A, Gelenberg A J, Bachar K, Delgado P L.
Pindolol augmentation of treatment-resistant depressed patients.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1997;
58
437-439
- 159
Perez V, Gilaberte I, Faries D, Alvarez E, Artigas F.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pindolol in combination with
fluoxetine antidepressant treatment.
Lancet.
1997;
349
1594-1597
- 160
Berman R M, Anand A, Capiello A, Miller H L, Hu X S, Oren D A, Charney D S.
The use of pindolol with fluoxetine in the treatment of major depression: a double-blind,
placebo-controlled trial.
Biol Psychiatry.
1999;
45
1170-1177
- 161
Maes M, Libbrecht I, Hunsel F van, Campens D, Meltzer Y.
Pindolol and mianserin augment the antidepressant activity of fluoxetine in hospitalized
major depressed patients, including those with treatment resistance.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1999;
19
177-182
- 162
Sacristan J A, Gilaberte I, Boto B, Buesching D P, Obenchain R L, Demitrack M, Perez-Sola V,
Alvarez E, Artigas F.
Cost-effectiveness of fluoxetine plus pindolol in patients with major depression disorder:
results from randomized, double-blind clinical trial.
Int Clin Psychopharmacol.
2000;
15
107-113
- 163
Zanardi R, Franchini L, Gasperini M, Lucca A, Smeraldi E, Perez J.
Faster onset of action of fluvoxamine in combination with pindolol in the treatment
of delusional depression: a controlled study.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1998;
18
441-446
- 164
Tome M B, Cloninger C R, Watson J P, Issac M T.
Serotonergic autoceptor blockade in the reduction of antidepressant latency: personality
variables and response to paroxetine and pindolol.
J Affect Disord.
1997;
44
101-109
- 165
Zanardi R, Artigas F, Franchini L, Sforzini L, Gasperini M, Smeraldi E, Perez J.
How long should pindolol be associated with paroxetine to improve antidepressant response?.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1997;
17
446-450
- 166
Bordet R, Thomas P, Dupuis B.
Effect of pindolol on onset of action of paroxetine in the treatment of major depression:
intermediate analysis of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Am J Psychiatry.
1998;
155
1346-1351
- 167
Sokolski K N, Conney J C, Brown B J, DeMet E M.
Once-daily high-dose pindolol for SSRI-refractory depression.
Psychiatry Res.
2004;
15 (125)
81-86
- 168
Perez V, Soler J, Puigdemont D, Alvarez E, Artigas F.
A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of pindolol augmentation in depressive
patients resistant to serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
Arch Gen Psychiatry.
1999;
56
375-379
- 169
Perry E B, Berman R M, Sanacora G, Anand A, Lynch-Colonese K, Charney D S.
Pindolol augmentation in depressed patients resistant to selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial.
J Clin Psychiatry.
2004;
65
238-243
- 170
Maes M, Vandoolaeghe E, Desnyder R.
Efficacy of treatment with trazodone in combination with pindolol or fluoxetine in
major depression.
J Affect Disord.
1996;
41
201-210
- 171
Isaac M B, Issac M T.
Effect of pindolol and milnacipran versus milnacipran and placebo on plasma prolactin
and adrenocorticotrophic hormone in depressed subjects.
Hum Psychopharmacol.
2003;
18
569-574
- 172
Agelink M W, Baumann B, Sanner D, Kavuk I, Mück-Weymann M.
Komorbidität zwischen kardiovaskulären Erkrankungen und Depressionen.
Dtsch Med Wochenschr.
2004;
129
697-700
- 173
Räsanen P, Hakko H, Tiihonen J.
Pindolol and major affective disorders: a three-year follow-up study of 30.485 patients.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1999;
19
297-302
- 174
Hirschmann S, Dannon P N, Iancu I, Dolberg O T, Zohar J, Grunhaus L.
Pindolol augmentation in patients with treatment-resistant panic disorder: a double-blind,
placebo-controlled trial.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
2000;
20
556-559
- 175
Stein M B, Sareen J, Hami S, Chao J.
Pindolol potentiation of paroxetine for generalized social phobia: a double-blind,
placebo-controlled, crossover study.
Am J Psychiatry.
2001;
158
1725-1727
- 176
Blier P, Bergeron R.
Sequential administration of augmentation strategies in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive
disorder: preliminary findings.
Int Clin Psychopharmacol.
1996;
11
37-44
- 177
Koran L M, Mueller K, Maloney A.
Will pindolol augment the response to a serotonin reuptake inhibitor in obsessive-compulsive
disorder?.
J Clin Psychopharmacol.
1996;
16
253-254
- 178
Goodman W K.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder: diagnosis and treatment.
J Clin Psychiatry.
1999;
60 (Suppl 18)
27-32
- 179
Dannon P N, Sasson Y, Hirschmann S, Iancu I, Grunhaus L J, Zohar J.
Pindolol augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind
placebo-controlled trial.
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol.
2000;
10
165-169
- 180
Albert U, Bergesio C, Pessina E, Maina G, Bogetto F.
Management of treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Panminerva Med.
2002;
44
83-91
- 181 Kolb L S, Burris B, Griffith S. Propranolol and clonidine in treatment of the
chronic posttraumatic stress disorder of war. In: Van der Kolk (Ed). Posttraumatic
stress disorder: psychological and biological sequelae. Waschington DC: American Psychiatric
Press 1984: 98-105
- 182
Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T.
Propranolol treatment for childhood posttraumatic stress disorder, acute type: a pilot
study.
Am J Dis Child.
1988;
142
1244-1247
- 183
Taylor F, Cahill L.
Propranolol for reemergent posttraumatic stress disorder following an event of retraumatization:
a case study.
J Trauma Stress.
2002;
15
433-437
- 184
Pitman R K, Sanders K M, Zusman R M, Healy A R, Cheema F, Lasko N B, Cahill L, Orr S P.
Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol.
Biol Psychiatry.
2002;
51
189-192
- 185
Vaiva G, Ducrocq F, Jezequel K, Averland B, Lestavel P, Brunet A, Marmar C R.
Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months
after trauma.
Biol Psychiatry.
2003;
54
947-949
- 186
Shalev A Y, Sahar T, Freedman S, Peri T, Glick N, Brandes D, Orr S P, Pitman R K.
A prospective study of heart rate response following trauma and the subsequent development
of posttraumatic stress disorder.
Arch Gen Psychiatry.
1998;
55
553-559
- 187
Brayant R A, Harvey A G, Guthrie R M, Moulds M L.
A prospective study of psychophysiological arousal, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic
stress disorder.
J Abborm Psychol.
2000;
109
341-344
- 188
Blanchard E B, Hickling E J, Galovski T, Veazey C.
Emergency room vital signs and PTSD in a treatment seeking sample of motor vehicle
accident survivors.
J Trauma Stress.
2002;
15
199-204
- 189
Ozer E J, Best S R, Lipsey T L, Weiss D S.
Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis.
Psychol Bull.
2003;
129
52-73
- 190
Zatzick D F, Russo J, Pitman R K, Rivara F, Jurkovich G, Roy-Byrne P.
Reevaluating the association between emergency department heart rate and the development
of posttraumatic stress disorder: a public health approach.
Biol Psychiatry.
2005;
57
91-95
Dr. Jürgen Kornischka
Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie & Psychosomatik am Klinikum Herford Akademisches
Lehrkrankenhaus der Medizinischen Hochschule Hannover
Schwarzenmoorstr. 70
32049 Herford
Email: juergen.kornischka@klinikum-herford.de
