Spinal Cord and Spinal Column Injuries in Children: Current Management Options

Douglas L. Brockmeyer

doi:10.1055/s-2002-35246

Seminars in Neurosurgery, Table of Contents

Seminars in Neurosurgery 2002; 13(1): 039-046
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-35246

Spinal Cord and Spinal Column Injuries in Children: Current Management Options

Douglas L. Brockmeyer

Primary Children Health Center, University of Utah Medical School, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Abstract

ABSTRACT

Pediatric spinal cord and spinal column injuries are not uncommon; however, the data on which many management decisions are based are either incomplete or gleaned from adult studies. In this article, we review the current knowledge regarding pediatric spinal cord and spinal column injuries, and update the practitioner in the proper diagnosis and management of these disorders.

KEYWORDS

Pediatric - spinal cord injury - spinal column injury

Full Text

References

REFERENCES

1 Osenbach R, Menezes A. Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children. Pediatr Neurosci . 1989; 15 168-175
2 Hadley M N, Zabramski J M, Browner C M, Rekate H, Sonntag V KH. Pediatric spinal trauma. J Neurosurg . 1988; 68 18-24
3 Dickman C A, Rekate H L, Sonntag V KH, Zabramski J M. Pediatric spinal trauma: vertebral column and SCIs in children. Pediatr Neurosci . 1989; 15 237-256
4 Bondurant C, Oro J. Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality and Chiari malformation. J Neurosurg . 1993; 79 833-838
5 Bailey D. The normal cervical spine in infants and children. Radiology . 1952; 69 712-719
6 Ruge J R, Sinson G P, McLone D G, Cerullo L J. Pediatric spinal injury: the very young. J Neurosurg . 1988; 58 25-30
7 Sherk H H, Nicholson J T, Chung S MK. Fractures of the odontoid process in young children. J Bone and Joint Surg . 1978; 60-A(7) 921-924
8 Osenbach R K, Menezes A H. Pediatric spinal cord and vertebral column injury. Neurosurg . 1992; 30 385-390
9 Pang D, Wilberger J. Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormalities in children. J Neurosurg . 1982; 57 114-129
10 Grabb P, Pang D. Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children. Neurosurgery . 1994; 35 406-414
11 Durkin M S, Olsen S, Barlow B, Virella A, Connolly E S. The epidemiology of urban pediatric neurological trauma: evaluation of, and implications for, injury prevention programs. Neurosurg . 1998; 42 300-310
12 Eleraky M, Theodore N, Adams M, Rekate H, Sonntag V. Pediatric cervical spine injuries: report of 102 cases and review of the literature. J Neurosurg Spine 1 . 2000; 92 12-17
13 Menezes A, VanGilder J. Anomalies of the craniovertebral junction. In: Youmans J, ed. Neurological Surgery Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders 1990: 1359-1420
14 Brockmeyer D. Down syndrome and craniovertebral instability. Pediatr Neurosurg . 1999; 31 71-77
15 Haher T, Yeung A, Caruso S. Occipital screw pull-out strength: a biomechnical investigation of occipital morphology. Spine . 1999; 24 5-9
16 Hanson P B, Montesano P X, Sharkey N A, Rauschning W. Anatomic and biomechnical assessment of transarticular screw fixation for atlantoaxial instability. Spine . 1991; 16 1141-1145
17 Hurlbert R, Crawford N, Choi W. A biomechnical evaluation of occipitocervical instrumentation: screw compared to wire fixation. J Neurosurg Spine . 1999; 90 84-90
18 Brockmeyer D L, Apfelbaum R I. A new occipitocervical fusion construct in pediatric patients with occipitocervical instability. J Neurosurg Spine 2 . 1999; 90 271-275
19 Vale F, Oliver M, Cahill D. Rigid occipitocervical fusion. J Neurosurg Spine 2 . 1999; 91 144-150
20 Pait T, Al-Mefty O, Boop F, Arnautovic K, Rahman S, Ceola W. Inside-outside technique for posterior occipitocervical spine instrumentation and stabilization: preliminary results. J Neurosurg Spine 1 . 1999; 90 1-7
21 Coyne T J, Fehlings M G, Wallace M C, Bernstein M, Tator C H. C1-C2 posterior cervical fusion: long-term evaluation of results and efficacy. J Neurosurg Spine . 1995; 37 688-693
22 Fried L C. Atlanto-axial fracture-dislocations: failure of posterior C.1 to C.2 fusion. J Bone and Joint Surg . 1973; 55B 490-496
23 Koop S E, Winter R B, Lonstein J E. The surgical treatment of instability of the upper part of the cervical spine in children and adolescents. J Bone and Joint Surg . 1984; 66-A(3) 403-411
24 Lowry D W, Pollack I F, Clyde B, Albright A L, Adelson P D. Upper cervical spine fusion in the pediatric population. J Neurosurg . 1997; 87 671-676
25 Rockswold G L, Bergman T A, Ford S E. Halo immobilization and surgical fusion: relative indications and effectiveness in the treatment of 140 cervical spine injuries. J Trauma . 1990; 30 893-898
26 Smith M D, Phillips W A, Hensinger R N. Fusion of the upper cervical spine in children and adolescents: an analysis of 17 patients. Spine . 1991; 16 695-701
27 Apfelbaum R. Posterior transarticular C1-2 screw fixation for atlantoaxial instability. Aesculap Scientific Information . 1993; 25 1-15
28 Brockmeyer D, Apfelbaum R, Tippets R, Walker M, Carey L. Pediatric cervical spine instrumentation using screw fixation. Pediatr Neurosurg . 1995; 22 147-157
29 Grob D, Jeanneret B, Aebi M, Markwalder T M. Atlanto-axial fusion with transarticular screw fixation. J Bone Joint Surg (Br) . 1991; 73-B 972-976
30 Paramore C G, Dickman C A, Sonntag V KH. The anatomical suitability of the C1-2 complex for transarticular screw fixation. J Neurosurg . 1996; 85 221-224
31 Apfelbaum R, Lonser R, Veres R, Casey A. Direct anterior screw fixation for recent and remote odontoid fractures. J Neurosurg Spine 2 . 2000; 93 227-236
32 Wang J, Vokshoor A, Kim S, Elton S, Kosnik E, Bartkowski H. Pediatric atlantoaxial instability: management with screw fixation. Pediatr Neurosurg . 1999; 30 70-78
33 Brockmeyer D, York J E, Apfelbaum R. Anatomical suitability of C1-2 transarticular screw placement in pediatric patients. J Neurosurg Spine 1 . 2000; 92 7-11