Viral Meningitis

Harley A. Rotbart

doi:10.1055/s-2000-9427

Subscribe to RSS

Please copy the URL and add it into your RSS Feed Reader.

https://www.thieme-connect.de/rss/thieme/en/10.1055-s-00000071.xml

Share / Bookmark

Facebook Twitter Linkedin Weibo

Download PDF

Semin Neurol 2000; Volume 20(Number 03): 277-292
DOI: 10.1055/s-2000-9427

Viral Meningitis

Harley A. Rotbart

Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO

Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
31 December 2000 (online)

Abstract
Full Text
References

Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Enteroviruses account for 85 to 95% of all cases of aseptic meningitis, but the arboviruses and herpes simplex virus are also important etiologic agents. Mumps, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, herpes zoster, human herpesvirus type 6, and influenza viruses are rare causes of meningitis. The virology, pathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic studies, and established and potential antiviral therapies for viral meningitis are discussed. A differential diagnosis of the aseptic meningitis syndrome is provided.

KEYWORD

viral meningitis - enteroviruses - herpes viruses

REFERENCES

1 Wallgren A. Die Atiologie der Enzephalomeningitis bei Kindern, besonders des Syndromes der akuten abakterielien (aseptichen) Meningitis. Acta Paediatr Scand . 1951; 40 541-565
2 Rassmussen Jr AF. The laboratory diagnosis of lymphocytic choriomeningitis and mumps. Presented at the Rocky Mountain Conference on Poliomyelitis. Denver, CO 1946
3 Adair C V, Gauld R L, Smadel J E. Aseptic meningitis, a disease of diverse etiology: clinical and etiologic studies on 854 cases. Ann Intern Med . 1953; 39 675-704
4 Dalldorf G, Sickles G M. An unidentified, filtrable agent isolated from the feces of children with paralysis. Science . 1948; 108 61-62
5 Enders J R, Weller T H, Robbins F C. Cultivation of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissues. Science . 1949; 109 85-87
6 Meyer Jr H M, Johnson R T, Crawford I P, Dascomb H E, Rogers N G. Central nervous system syndromes of ``viral'' etiology. Am J Med . 1960; 29 334-347
7 Lepow M L, Coyne N, Thompson L B, Carver D H, Robbins F C. A clinical epidemiologic and laboratory investigation of aseptic meningitis during the four-year period, 1955-1958; II. The clinical disease and its sequelae. N Engl J Med . 1962; 266 1188-1193
8 Lennette E H, Magoffin R L, Knouf E G. Viral central nervous system disease: an etiologic study conducted at the Los Angeles County General Hospital. JAMA . 1962; 179 687-695
9 Buescher E L, Artenstein M S, Olson L C. Central nervous system infections of viral etiology: the changing pattern. Res Pub Assoc Nerv Ment Dis . 1968; 44 147-163
10 Deibel R, Barron A, Millian S, Smith V. Central nervous system infections in New York State: etiologic and epidemiologic observations, 1972. N Y State J Med . 1974; 74 1929-1935
11 Deibel R, Flanagan T D, Smith V. Central nervous system infections in New York State: etiologic and epidemiologic observations, 1974. N Y State J Med . 1975; 75 2337-2342
12 Deibel R, Flanagan T D, Smith V. Central nervous system infections: etiologic and epidemiologic observations in New York State, 1975. N Y State J Med . 1977; 77 1398-1404
13 Deibel R, Flanagan T D. Central nervous system infections: etiologic and epidemiologic observations in New York State, 1976-1977. N Y State J Med . 1979; 79 689-695
14 Flanagan T D, Deibel R. Central nervous system infections: etiologic and epidemiologic observations in New York State, 1978-1979. N Y State J Med . 1981; 81 346-1353
15 Berlin L E, Rorabaugh M L, Heldrich F, Roberts K, Doran T, Modlin J F. Aseptic meningitis in infants <2 years of age: diagnosis and etiology. J Infect Dis . 1993; 168 888-892
16 Rotbart H A. Diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis with the polymerase chain reaction. J Pediatr . 1990; 117 85-89
17 Sawyer M H, Holland D, Aintablian N. Diagnosis of enteroviral central nervous system infection by polymerase chain reaction during a large community outbreak. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1994; 3 177-182
18 Hogle J M, Chow M, Filman D J. Three-dimensional structure of poliovirus at 2.9A resolution. Science . 1985; 229 1358-1365
19 Racaniello V R. Early events in infection: receptor binding and cell entry. In: Rotbart HA, ed. Human Enterovirus Infections Washington, DC: ASM Press 1995: 73-93
20 Johnson K L, Sarnow P. Viral RNA synthesis. In: Rotbart HA, ed. Human Enterovirus Infections Washington, DC: ASM Press 1995: 95-112
21 Hellen C UT, Wimmer E. Enterovirus genetics. In: Rotbart HA, ed. Human Enterovirus Infections Washington, DC: ASM Press 1995: 25-72
22 Meinick J L. Enteroviruses: polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven Press 1996: 655-712
23 Cherry J D. Enteroviruses: coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, polioviruses and enteroviruses. In: Feigin RD, Cherry JD, eds. Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders 1998: 1787-1838
24 Prather S L, Dagan R, Jenista J A, Menegus M A. The isolation of enteroviruses from blood: a comparison of four processing methods. J Med Virol . 1984; 14 221-227
25 Price R A, Garcia J H, Rightsel W A. Choriomeningitis and myocarditis in an adolescent with isolation of Coxsackie B-5 virus. Am J Clin Pathol . 1970; 53 825-831
26 Sutinen S, Kalliomaki J L, Pohjonen R, Vastamaki R. Fatal generalized Coxsackie B3 virus infection in an adolescent with successful isolation of the virus from pericardial fluid. Ann Clin Res . 1971; 3 241-246
27 DeSena J, Mandel B. Studies on the in vitro uncoating of poliovirus: II. Characterization of the membrane-modified particle. Virology . 1977; 78 554-566
28 Guttman N, Baltimore D. A plasma membrane component able to bind and alter virions of poliovirus type 1: studies on cell-free alteration using a simplified assay. Virology . 1977; 82 25-36
29 Haller A A, Semler B L. Translation and host cell shutoff. In: Rotbart HA, ed. Human Enterovirus Infections Washington, DC: ASM Press 1995: 113-133
30 Centers for Disease Control. Progress toward global eradication of poliomyelitis, 1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 1996; 45 565-568
31 Strikas R A, Anderson L J, Parker R A. Temporal and geographic patterns of isolates of nonpolio enterovirus in the United States, 1970-1983. J Infect Dis . 1986; 153 346-351
32 Rotbart H A, Brennan P J, Fife K H. Enterovirus meningitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis . 1998; 27 896-898
33 Rantakallio P, Leskinen M, von Wendt L. Incidence and prognosis of central nervous system infections in a birth cohort of 12,000 children. Scand J Infect Dis . 1986; 18 287-294
34 Sumaya C V, Corman L I. Enteroviral meningitis in early infancy: significance in community outbreaks. Pediatr Infect Dis . 1982; 3 151-154
35 Dai-ming W, Guo-chang Z, Shi-mei Z, Yu-cai Z. An epidemic of encephalitis and meningoencephalitis in children caused by echovirus type 30 in Shanghai. Chin Med J . 1993; 106 767-769
36 Kinnunen E, Hovi T, Stenvik M. Localized outbreak of enteroviral meningitis in adults. Acta Neurol Scand . 1987; 74 346-351
37 Chang L Y, Huang Y C, Lin T Y. Fulminant neurogenic pulmonary oedema with hand, foot, and mouth disease. Lancet . 1998; 352 367
38 Ho M, Chen E-R, Hsu K-H. An epidemic of enterovirus 71 infection in Taiwan. N Engl J Med . 1999; 341 929-935
39 Rotbart H A. Viral meningitis and the aseptic meningitis syndrome. In: Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Durack DT, eds. Infections of the Central Nervous System Washington, DC: Lippincott-Raven Publishers 1997: 23-46
40 Gutierrez K, Abzug M J. Vaccine-associated poliovirus meningitis in children with ventriculoperitoneal shunts. J Pediatr . 1990; 117 424-427
41 Rotbart H A. Enteroviruses. In: SL Katz, AA Gershon, PJ Hotez, eds. Infectious Diseases of Children St. Louis: Mosby 1998: 81-97
42 Morens D M, Pallansch M A. Epidemiology. In: Rotbart HA, ed. Human Enterovirus Infections Washington, DC: ASM Press, 1995: 3-23:70
43 Russell W R. Poliomyelitis: pre-paralytic stage and effect of physical activity on severity of paralysis. Br Med J . 1947; 2 1023
44 Gatmaitan B G, Chason J L, Lerner A M. Augmentation of the virulence of murine coxsackievirus B-3 myocardiopathy by exercise. J Exp Med . 1970; 131 1121-1136
45 Moore M, Baron R C, Filstein M R. Aseptic meningitis and high school football players, 1978-1980. JAMA . 1983; 249 2039-2042
46 Moore M. Enteroviral disease in the United States, 1970-1979. J Infect Dis . 1982; 146 103-108
47 Klemola E, Lapinleimu K. Multiple attacks of aseptic meningitis in the same individual. Br Med J . 1964; 1 1087-1090
48 Balfour Jr H H, Seifert G L, Seifert Jr M H. Meningoencephalitis and laboratory evidence of triple infection with California encephalitis virus, echovirus 1 1 and mumps. Pediatrics . 1973; 51 680-684
49 Eglin R P, Swann R A, Isaacs D, Moxon E R. Simultaneous bacterial and viral meningitis. Lancet . 1984; 2 984
50 Abzug M J. Perinatal enterovirus infections. In: Rotbart HA, ed. Human Enterovirus Infections Washington, DC: ASM Press 1995: 221-238
51 Kaplan M H, Klein S W, McPhee J, Harper R G. Group B coxsackievirus infections in infants younger than three months of age: a serious childhood illness. Rev Infect Dis . 1983; 5 1019-1032
52 Modlin J F. Perinatal echovirus infection: insights from a literature review of 61 cases of serious infection and 16 outbreaks in nurseries. Rev Infect Dis . 1986; 8 918-926
53 Abzug M J, Levin M J, Rotbart H A. Profile of enterovirus disease in the first two weeks of life. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1993; 12 820-824
54 Nogen A G, Lepow M L. Enteroviral meningitis in very young infants. Pediatrics . 1967; 40 617-627
55 Pichichero M E, McLinn S, Rotbart H A. Clinical and economic impact of enterovirus illness in private pediatric practice. Pediatr . 1998; 102 1126-1134
56 Singer J I, Maur P R, Riley J P, Smith P S. Management of central nervous system infections during an epidemic of enteroviral aseptic meningitis. J Pediatr . 1980; 96 559-563
57 Wilfert C M, Lehrman S N, Katz S L. Enteroviruses and meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis . 1983; 2 333-341
58 Horstmann D M, Yamada N. Enterovirus infections of the central nervous system. Res Pub Assoc Nerv Ment Dis . 1968; 44 236-253
59 Solomon P, Weinstein L, Chang T W. Epidemiologic, clinical and laboratory features of an epidemic of type 9 Echo virus meningitis. J Pediatr . 1959; 55 609-619
60 Chemtob S, Reece E R, Mills E L. Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone in enteroviral meningitis. Am J Dis Child . 1985; 139 292-294
61 Rotbart H A, McCracken G H, Whitley R J. Clinical significance of enteroviruses in serious summer febrile illnesses of children. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1999; 18 869-874
62 Sawyer M H, Saez-Llorenz X, Aviles C L. Oral pleconaril reduces the duration and severity of enteroviral meningitis in children. Proceedings of the 1999 APS/SPR meetings; San Francisco; 1999
63 Rorabaugh M L, Berlin L E, Rosenberg L, Rossman M, Allen M, Modlin J F. Absence of neurodevelopmental sequelae from aseptic meningitis. Pediatr Res . 1992; 30 177A
64 McKinney Jr R E, Katz S L, Wilfert C M. Chronic enteroviral meningoencephalitis in agammaglobulinemic patients. Rev Infect Dis . 1987; 9 334-356
65 Rotbart H A, Kinsella J P, Wasserman R L. Persistent enterovirus infection in culture-negative meningoencephalitis: demonstration by enzymatic RNA amplification. J Infect Dis . 1990; 161 787-791
66 O'Neil K M, Pallansch M A, Winkelstein J A. Chronic group A coxsackievirus infection in agammaglobulinemia: demonstration of genomic variation of serotypically identical isolates persistently excreted by the same patient. J Infect Dis . 1988; 157 183-186
67 Dunn J J, Romero J R, Wasserman R, Rotbart H A. Stable enterovirus genome over a seven year period in a patient with agammaglobulinemia and chronic infection. J Infect Dis .
68 Webster A DB, Rotbart H A, Warner T. Diagnosis of enterovirus brain disease in hypogammaglobulinemic patients by polymerase chain reaction. Clin Infect Dis . 1993; 17 657-661
69 Lake A M, Lauer B A, Clark J C. Enterovirus infections in neonates. J Pediatr . 1976; 89 787-791
70 Miller S A, Wald E R, Bergman I, DeBiasio R. Enteroviral meningitis in January with marked cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis. Pediatr Infect Dis . 1986; 5 706-707
71 Rice S K, Heinl R E, Thornton L L, Opal S M. Clinical characteristics, management strategies, and cost implications of a statewide outbreak of enterovirus meningitis. Clin Infect Dis . 1995; 20 931-937
72 Dagan R, Jenista J A, Menegus M A. Association of clinical presentation, laboratory findings, and virus serotypes with the presence of meningitis in hospitalized infants with enterovirus infection. J Pediatr . 1988; 113 975-978
73 Feigin R D, Shackelford P G. Value of repeat lumbar puncture in the differential diagnosis of meningitis. N Engl J Med . 1973; 289 571-574
74 Amir J, Harel L, Frydman M, Handsher R, Varsano I. Shift of cerebrospinal polymorphonuclear cell percentage in the early stage of aseptic meningitis. J Pediatr . 1991; 119 938-940
75 Malcom B S, Eiden J J, Hendley J O. ECHO virus type 9 meningitis simulating tuberculous meningitis. Pediatrics . 1980; 65 725-726
76 Jarvis W R, Tucker G. Echovirus type 7 meningitis in young children. Am J Dis Child . 1981; 135 1009-1012
77 Howden C W, Lang W R, Laws J. An epidemic of ECHO 9 virus meningitis in Auckland. N Z Med J . 1966; 65 763-765
78 Chonmaitree T, Baldwin C D, Lucia H L. Role of the virology laboratory in diagnosis and management of patients with central nervous system disease. Clin Microbiol Rev . 1989; 2 1-14
79 Rotbart H A. Enteroviruses. In: PR Murray, EJ Baron, MA Pfaller, et al, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology Washington, DC: ASM Press 1999: 990-998
80 Johnson G M, McAbee G A, Seaton E D, Lipson S M. Suspect value of non-CSF viral cultures in the diagnosis of enteroviral CNS infection in young infants. Dev Med Child Neurol . 1992; 34 876-884
81 Dagan R, Menegus M A. A combination of four cell types for rapid detection of enteroviruses in clinical specimens. J Med Virol . 1986; 19 219-228
82 Chonmaitree T, Ford C, Sanders C, Lucia H L. Comparison of cell cultures for rapid isolation of enteroviruses. J Clin Microbiol . 1988; 26 2576-2580
83 Wilfert C M, Zeller J. Enterovirus diagnosis. In: de la Maza L, Peterson EM, eds. Medical Virology IV: Proceedings of the 1984 International Symposium on Medical Virology London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 1985: 85-107
84 Herrmann J E, Hendry R M, Collins M F. Factors involved in enzyme-linked immunoassay of viruses and evaluation of the method for identification of enteroviruses. J Clin Microbiol . 1979; 10 210-217
85 Yolken R H, Torsch V M. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection and identification of Coxsackie B antigen in tissue cultures and clinical specimens. J Med Virol . 1980; 6 45-52
86 Rotbart H A. Enzymatic RNA amplification of the enteroviruses. J Clin Microbiol . 1990; 28 438-442
87 Rotbart H A, Sawyer M H, Fast S. Diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis using the polymerase chain reaction with a colorimetric microwell detection assay. J Clin Microbiol . 1994; 32 2590-2592
88 Byington C L, Taggart E W, Carrol K C, Hillyard D R. A polymerase chain reaction-based epidemiologic investigation of the incidence of non-polio enteroviral infections in febrile and afebrile infants 90 days and younger. Pediatrics . 1999; 103 e27
89 Hamilton M S, Jackson M A, Abel D. Clinical utility of polymerase chain reaction testing for enteroviral meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1999; 18 533-538
90 Rotbart H A, O'Connell J F, McKinlay M A. Treatment of human enterovirus infections. Antiviral Res . 1998; 38 1-14
91 Pevear D. Antiviral therapy for picornavirus infections: pleconaril. Abstracts of the 15th Annual Clinical Virology Symposium, 1999; Clearwater, FL
92 Abzug M J, Keyserling H L, Lee M L, Levin M J, Rotbart H A. Neonatal enterovirus infection: virology, serology, and effects of intravenous immune globulin. Clin Infect Dis . 1995; 20 1201-1206
93 Schiff G M, McKinlay M A, Sherwood J R. Oral efficacy of VP63843 in coxsackievirus A21 infected volunteers. Abstracts of the 36th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 1996; New Orleans
94 Shafran S D, Halota W, Gilbert D. Pleconaril is effective for enteroviral meningitis in adolescents and adults: a randomized placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Abstracts of the 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 1999; San Francisco
95 Rotbart, H A, Webster A DB. Treatment of potentially life-threatening enterovirus infections with pleconaril. Clin Infect Dis. .
96 Casals J. Arboviruses. Am J Clin Pathol . 1972; 57 762-770
97 Lowry P W. Arbovirus encephalitis in the United States and Asia. J Lab Clin Med . 1997; 129 405-411
98 Monath T P, Cropp C B, Harrison A K. Mode of entry of a neurotropic arbovirus into the central nervous system: reinvestigation of an old controversy. Lab Invest . 1983; 48 399-410
99 Johnson R T. Viral Infections of the Nervous System. New York: Raven Press; 1982
100 Albrecht P. Pathogenesis of neurotropic arbovirus infections. Curr Top Microbiol lmmunol . 1968; 43 44-91
101 Rice C M. Flaviviruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven 1996: 931-960
102 Tsai T F, Canfield M A, Reed C M. Epidemiological aspects of a St. Louis encephalitis outbreak in Harris County, Texas, 1986. J Infect Dis . 1988; 157 351-356
103 Tsai T F. Alphaviruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven 1996: 1949-1973
104 Smaljohn C S. Bunyaviridae and their replication: Part II: Replication of Bunyaviridae. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven 1996: 1447-1472
105 Balfour Jr H H, Siem R A, Bauer H, Quie P G. California arbovirus (La Crosse) infections: I. Clinical and laboratory findings in 66 children with meningoencephalitis. Pediatrics . 1973; 52 680-691
106 Srihongse S, Grayson M A, Deibel R. California serogroup viruses in New York State: the role of subtypes in human infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg . 1984; 33 1218-1227
107 Emmons R W. Ecology of Colorado tick fever. Annu Rev Microbiol . 1988; 42 49-64
108 Spruance S L, Bailey A. Colorado tick fever: a review of 115 laboratory confirmed cases. Arch Intern Med . 1973; 131 288-293
109 Silver H K, Meiklejohn G, Kempe C H. Colorado tick fever. Am J Dis Child . 1961; 101 56-61
110 Goodpasture H C, Poland J D, Francy D B. Colorado tick fever: clinical, epidemiologic, and laboratory aspects of 228 cases in Colorado in 1973-1974. Ann Intern Med . 1978; 88 303-310
111 Eklund C M, Kohls G M, Jellison W L. The clinical and ecological aspects of Colorado tick fever. Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress on Tropical Medicine and Malaria . 1959; 5 197-203
112 Hughes L, Casper E A, Clifford C. Persistence of Colorado tick fever virus in red blood cells. Am J Trop Med Hyg . 1974; 23 530-532
113 Kuno G. Universal diagnostic RT-PCR protocol for arboviruses. J Virol Methods . 1998; 72 27-41
114 Tsai T F. Arboviruses. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Pfaller MA, et al, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology Washington, DC: ASM Press 1999: 1107-1124
115 Emmons R W, Dondero D V, Devlin V, Lennette E H. Serologic diagnosis of Colorado tick fever: a comparison of complement-fixation, immunofluorescence, and plaque-reduction methods. Am J Trop Med Hyg . 1969; 18 796-802
116 Johnston R E, Peters C J. Alphaviridae. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven 1996: 843-898
117 McCarthy M, Jubeit B, Fay D B, Johnson R T. Comparative studies of five strains of mumps virus in vitro and in neonatal hamsters: evaluation of growth, cytopathogenicity and neuroviruience. J Med Virol . 1980; 5 1-5
118 Wolinsky J S. Mumps virus. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven 1996: 1243-1266
119 Kilham L. Mumps meningoencephalitis with and without parotitis. Am J Dis Child . 1949; 78 324-333
120 Kilham L. Isolation of mumps virus from the blood of a patient. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med . 1948; 69 99-100
121 Bang H O, Bang J. Involvement of the central nervous system in mumps. Acta Med Scand . 1943; 13 487-505
122 Wolinsky J S, Klassen T, Baringer J R. Persistence of neuroadapted mumps virus in brains of newborn hamsters after intraperitoneal inoculation. J Infect Dis . 1976; 133 260-267
123 Wolinsky J S. Mumps virus-induced hydrocephalus in hamsters: ultrastructure of the chronic infection. Lab Invest . 1977; 37 229-236
124 Russell R R, Donald J C. The neurological complications of mumps. Br Med J . 1958; 78 27-30
125 Azimi P H, Cramblett H G, Haynes R E. Mumps meningoencephalitis in children. JAMA . 1969; 207 509-512
126 Levison H, Thordarson O. Mumps meningitis and meningo-encephalitis. Acta Med Scand . 1942; 113 314-327
127 Bistrian B, Phillips C A, Kaye I S. Fatal mumps meningoencephalitis: isolation of virus premortem and postmortem. JAMA . 1972; 222 478-479
128 Poser C M. Disseminated vasculomyelinopathy. Acta Neurol Scand . 1969; 1-44 (1-44)
129 Saito H, Takahashi Y, Harata S. Cloning and characterization of the genomic RNA sequence of the mumps virus strain associated with a high incidence of aseptic meningitis. Microbiol Immunol . 1998; 42 133-137
130 Saito H, Takahashi Y, Harata S. Isolation and characterization of mumps virus strains in a mumps outbreak with a high incidence of aseptic meningitis. Microbiol Immunol . 1996; 40 271-275
131 Centers for Disease Control. Mumps: United States, 1985-1938. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 1989; 38 101-105
132 Centers for Disease Control. Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 1994; 42 69
133 Scheid W. Mumps virus and the central nervous system. World Neurol . 1961; 2 117
134 Lennett E H, Caplan G E, Magoffin R L. Mumps virus infection simulating paralytic poliomyelitis: a report of 11 cases. Pediatrics . 1960; 25 788-797
135 Donald P R, Burger P J, Becker W B. Mumps meningo-encephalitis. S Afr Med J . 1987; 71 283-285
136 Strussberg S, Winter S, Friedman A, Benderly A, Kahana D, Freundlich E. Notes on mumps meningoencephalitis: some features of 199 cases in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) . 1969; 8 373-377
137 Wilfert C M. Mumps meningoencephalitis with low cerebrospinal-fluid glucose, prolonged pleocytosis and elevation of protein. N Engl J Med . 1969; 280 855-859
138 Enders J F, Cohen S. Detection of antibody by complement-fixation in sera of man and monkey convalescent from mumps. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med . 1942; 50 180
139 Freeman R, Hambling M H. Serological studies on 40 cases of mumps virus infection. J Clin Pathol . 1980; 33 28-32
140 Grillner L, Blomberg J. Hemolysis-in-gel and neutralization tests for determination of antibodies to mumps virus. J Clin Microbiol . 1976; 4 11-15
141 Chomel J J, Robin Y, Durdilly R. Rapid direct diagnosis of mumps meningitis by ELISA capture technique. J Virol Methods . 1997; 68 97-104
142 Gellis S S, McGuiness A C, Peters M. A study of the prevention of mumps orchitis by gammaglobulin. Am J Med Sci . 1945; 210 661-664
143 Koplan J P, Preblud S R. A benefit-cost analysis of mumps vaccine. Am J Dis Child . 1982; 136 362-364
144 Miller E, Goidacre M, Pugh S. Risk of aseptic meningitis after measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine in UK children. Lancet . 1993; 341 979-982
145 Tesovic G, Begovac J, Bace A. Aseptic meningitis after measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine. Lancet . 1993; 341 1541
146 McDonald J C, Moore D L, Quennec P. Clinical and epidemiologic features of mumps meningoencephalitis and possible vaccine-related disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1989; 8 751-755
147 Southern P J. Arenaviruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology New York: Lippincott-Raven 1996: 655-712
148 Barton L L, Mets M B. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: pediatric pathogen and fetal teratogen. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1999; 18 540-541
149 Deibel R, Woodall J P, Decher W J, Schryver G D. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in man: serologic evidence of association with pet hamsters. JAMA . 1975; 232 501-504
150 Vanzee B E, Doublas Jr R G, Befts R F, Bauman A W, Frazer D W, Hinman A R. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis in university hospital personnel: clinical features. Am J Med . 1975; 58 803-809
151 Hirsch M S, Moellering Jr R C, Pope H G, Poskanzer D C. Lymphocytic-choriomeningitis-virus infection traced to a pet hamster. N Engl J Med . 1974; 291 610-612
152 Warkel R L, Rinaldi C F, Bancroft W H. Fatal acute meningoencephalitis due to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Neurology . 1973; 23 198-203
153 Oldstone M BA, ed. Arenaviruses: biology and immunotherapy. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol . 1987; 134 211-229
154 Rathore M H, Mercurio K, Halstead D. Herpes simplex virus type 1 meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1996; 15 824-828
155 Schlesinger Y, Tebas P, Gaudreault-Keener M. Herpes simplex virus type 2 meningitis in the absence of genital lesions: improved recognition with use of the polymerase chain reaction. Clin Infect Dis . 1995; 20 842-848
156 Schlesinger Y, Storch G A. Herpes simplex meningitis in infancy. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1994; 13 141-144
157 Echevarria J M, Martinez-Martin P, Tellez A. Aseptic meningitis due to varicella- zoster virus: serum antibody levels and local synthesis of specific IgG, IgM, and IgA. J Infect Dis . 1987; 155 959-967
158 Echevarria J M, Casas I, Tenorio A, de Ory F, Martinez-Martin P. Detection of varicella-zoster virus-specific DNA sequences in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with acute aseptic meningitis and no cutaneous lesions. J Med Virol . 1994; 43 331-335
159 Shoji H, Honda Y, Murai I, Sato Y, Oizumi K, Hondo R. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA by polymerase chain reaction in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with herpes zoster meningitis. J Neurol . 1992; 239 69-70
160 Causey J O. Spontaneous cytomegalovirus mononucleosis-like syndrome and aseptic meningitis. South Med J . 1976; 69 1384-1387
161 Duchowny M, Caplan L, Siber G. Cytomegalovirus infection of the adult nervous system. Ann Neurol . 1979; 5 458-461
162 lshiguro N, Yamada S, Takahashi T. Meningo-encephalitis associated with HHV-6 related exanthem subitum. Acta Pediatr Scand . 1990; 79 987-989
163 Yoshikawa T, Nakashima T, Suga S. Human herpesvirus-6 DNA in cerebrospinal fluid of a child with exanthem subitum and meningoencephalitis. Pediatrics . 1992; 89 888-890
164 Koranyi K I, Chapman J, Scherzer D. Irritability and vomiting in a five-month old. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1997; 16 1186,1189
165 Olson L C, Buescher E L, Artenstein M S, Parkman P D. Herpesvirus infections of the human central nervous system. N Engl J Med . 1967; 277 1271-1277
166 Corey L, Adams H G, Brown Z A, Holmes K K. Genital herpes simplex virus infections: clinical manifestations, course, and complications. Ann Intern Med . 1983; 98 958-972
167 Hartford C G, Wellinghoff W, Weinstein R A. Isolation of herpes simplex from the cerebrospinal fluid in viral meningitis. Neurology (Minneap) . 1975; 25 198-200
168 Conway J H, Ashley R, Amer J. Viral meningitis in a preadolescent child caused by reactivation of latent herpes simplex (type 1). Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1997; 16 627-629
169 Johnson R, Milbourn P E. Central nervous system manifestations of chickenpox. Can Med Assoc J . 1970; 102 831-834
170 Mayo D R, Booss J. Varicella zoster-associated neurologic disease without skin disease. Arch Neurol . 1989; 46 313-315
171 Silverstein A, Steinberg G, Nathanson M. Nervous system involvement in infectious mononucleosis. Arch Neurol . 1972; 26 353-358
172 Yamanishi K, Okuno T, Shiraki K. Identification of human herpesvirus 6 as a causal agent for exanthem subitum. Lancet . 1988; 1 1065-1067
173 Pruksananonda P, Breese C, Insel R A. Primary human herpesvirus 6 infection in young children. N Engl J Med . 1992; 326 1445-1450
174 Kondo K, Nagafuji H, Hata A, Tomomori C, Yarnanishi K. Association of human herpesvirus 6 infection of the central nervous system with recurrence of febrile convulsions. J Infect Dis . 1993; 167 1197-1200
175 Caserta M T, Hall C B, Schnabel K. Neuroinvasion and persistence of human herpesvirus 6 in children. J Infect Dis . 1994; 170 1586-1589
176 Tedder D G, Ashley R, Tyler K L, Levin M J. Herpes simplex virus infection as a cause of benign recurrent lymphocytic meningitis. Ann Intern Med . 1994; 121 334-338
177 Jensenius M, Myrvang B, Storvold G. Herpes simplex virus type 2 DNA detected in cerebrospinal fluid of 9 patients with Mollaret's meningitis. Acta Neurol Scand . 1998; 98 209-212
178 Steel J G, Dix R D, Baringer J R. Isolation of herpes simplex virus type I in recurrent (Mollaret) meningitis. Ann Neurol . 1982; 11 17-21
179 Graman P S. Mollaret's meningitis associated with acute Epstein-Barr virus mononucleosis. Arch Neurol . 1987; 44 1204-1205
180 Hanninen P, Arstila P, Lang H. Involvement of the central nervous system in acute, uncomplicated measles virus infection. J Clin Microbiol . 1980; 11 610-613
181 Wong V K, Steinberg E, Warford A. Parainfluenza virus type 3 meningitis in an 11-month-old infant. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1988; 7 300-301
182 Arisoy E S, Demmier G J, Thakar S, Doerr C. Meningitis due to parainfluenza virus type 3: report of two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis . 1993; 17 995-997
183 Paisley J W, Bruhn F W, Lauer B A, McIntosh K. Type A2 influenza viral infections in children. Am J Dis Child . 1978; 132 34-36
184 Wong C J, Price Z, Bruckner D A. Aseptic meningitis in an infant with rotavirus gastroenteritis. Pediatr Infect Dis . 1984; 3 244-246
185 Gajdusek D C. Review article: encephalomyocarditis virus infection in childhood. Pediatrics . 1955; 16 902-906
186 Sundelof B, Gnarpe H, Gnarpe J. An unusual manifestation of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection: meningitis, hepatitis, iritis and atypical erythema nodosum. Scand J Infect Dis . 1993; 25 259-261
187 Okumura A, Ichikawa T. Aseptic meningitis caused by human parvovirus B19. Arch Dis Child . 1993; 68 784-785
188 Cassinofti P, Schultze D, Schlageter P, Cheviii S, Siegi G. Persistent human parvovirus B19 infection following an acute infection with meningitis in an immunocompetent patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis . 1993; 12 701-704
189 Hollander H, Stringari S. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated meningitis: clinical course and correlations. Am J Med . 1987; 83 813-816
190 Levy R M, Bredesen D E, Rosenblum M L. Neurological manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): experience at UCSF and review of the literature. J Neurosurg . 1985; 62 475-495
191 Trujillo J R, Garcia-Ramos G, Novak I S. Neurologic manifestations of AIDS: a comparative study of two populations from Mexico and the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol . 1995; 8 23-29
192 Atwood W J, Berger J R, Kaderman R, Tornatore C S, Major E O. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of the brain. Clin Microbiol Rev . 1993; 6 339-366
193 Bredesen, Lipkin W I, Messing R. Prolonged recurrent aseptic meningitis with prominent cranial nerve abnormalities: a new epidemic in gay men?. Neurology . 1983; 85 (85)
194 Petito C K. Neuropathology of human immunodeficiency virus: questions and answers. Hum Pathol . 1996; 27 623-624
195 Yokota T, Yamada M, Furukawa T, Tsukagoshi H. HTLV-1-associated meningitis. J Neurol . 1988; 235 129-130
196 Lind K, Zoffmann H, Larsen S O, Jessen O. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection associated with affection of the central nervous system. Acta Med Scand . 1979; 205 325-332
197 Narita M, ltakura O, Matsuzono Y, Togashi T. Analysis of mycoplasmal central nervous system involvement by polymerase chain reaction. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 1995; 14 236-237
198 Roe O, Jorgen D, Matre R. Isolation of Mycoplasma hominis from cerebrospinal fluid. Scand J Infect Dis . 1973; 5 285-288
199 Waites K B, Rudd P, Canupp K. Colonization of cerebrospinal fluid in neonates by Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum Program and Abstracts of the Sixth International Congress of the International Organization for Mycoplasmology, Birmingham, AL, August 26-31, . 1986: 11-95A
200 Lawson J M, Grady M J. lbuprofen-induced aseptic meningitis in a previously healthy patient. West J Med . 1985; 143 386-387
201 Carlson J, Wiholm B-E. Trimethoprim associated aseptic meningitis. Scand J Infect Dis . 1987; 19 687-691
202 Kawasaki T, Kosaki F, Okawa S. A new infantile mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome (MLNS) prevailing in Japan. Pediatrics . 1974; 54 271
203 Melish M E, Hicks R M, Larson E J. Mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome in the United States. Am J Dis Child . 1976; 130 599-607

>