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CC BY 4.0 · SynOpen 2025; 09(01): 10-24
DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1775432
DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1775432
review
Endoperoxides as Antimalarials: Development, Structural Diversity, and Pharmacodynamic Aspects of 1,2,4,5-Tetraoxane-Based Structural Scaffolds
Upendra Kumar Patel is thankful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) HRDG New Delhi, India (Grant no. 09/013(0933)/2020-EMR-I) for the Junior Research Fellowship and Senior Research Fellowship. Alka is thankful to CSIR-UGC, New Delhi, India, for providing the Junior Research Fellowship and Senior Research Fellowship (Award Ref. no. 105/(CSIR-UGC NET JUNE 2019)). Alka Agarwal is thankful to Banaras Hindu University and the Institute of Eminence (IoE No. Dev scheme No. 6031), Varanasi, India, for financial support.
Abstract
Malaria poses a serious threat to human life and is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas across the globe. Drugs such as quinine, chloroquine (a synthetic version of quinine), artemisinin, and its derivative compounds have been used to treat malaria. Developing highly effective chemical scaffolds with minimal toxicity is necessary because malarial parasites have become resistant to existing drugs. In this context, 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes have emerged as a crucial framework with notable antimalarial properties. To improve the effectiveness and combat resistance to various antimalarial drugs, 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes have been combined with a variety of alicyclic, aryl, heteroaryl, and spiro groups including steroid-based, aminoquinoline-based, dispiro-based, triazine-based, diaryl-based, and piperidine-based 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes. We provide an overview of the synthesis and most important in vitro and in vivo investigations carried out on hybrids based on 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane as antimalarial drugs. The future development of malaria treatment may be influenced by the structural changes in different hybrids of 1,2,4,5-tetraoxane.
1 Introduction
2 Synthetic Methods for Tetraoxanes
3 Antimalarial Activities of Tetraoxane Derivatives
3.1 Cycloalkanone-Based Tetraoxanes
3.2 Steroid-Based Tetraoxanes
3.3 Adamantane-Based Tetraoxanes
3.4 Dispiro-Based Tetraoxanes
3.5 Diaryl-Based Tetraoxanes
3.6 Di-adamantane-Based Tetraoxanes
3.7 Benzylamino- and Aryloxy-Based Tetraoxanes
3.8 Aminoquinoline-Based Tetraoxanes
3.9 2-Cyanopyrimidine-Based Tetraoxanes
4 Mannich Base Based Tetraoxanes
4.1 N-Sulfonylpiperidine-Based Tetraoxanes
4.2 N-Benzoylpiperidine-Based Tetraoxanes
5 Mechanism of Action of Dispiro-1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes
6 Conclusion
Key words
artemisinin - endoperoxide - cerebral malaria - sesquiterpene - central nervous system (CNS) - 1,2,4,5-tetroxane - 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanePublication History
Received: 19 September 2024
Accepted after revision: 08 November 2024
Article published online:
20 January 2025
© 2025. The Author(s). This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commercial purposes or adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
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