Download PDF
CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 · J Neuroanaesth Crit Care 2019; 06(03): 284-291
DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1698725
Review Article
Indian Society of Neuroanaesthesiology and Critical Care

Thromboprophylaxis in Neuro Intensive Care Unit

Amlan Swain
1   Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Main Hospital, Jamshedpur, India
,
Seelora Sahu
1   Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Main Hospital, Jamshedpur, India
,
Binita Panigrahi
2   Department of Critical Care, Tata Main Hospital, Jamshedpur, India
,
Deb S. Nag
1   Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Main Hospital, Jamshedpur, India
› Author Affiliations Funding This review received the department and institutional support.
Further Information

Publication History

Received: 15 August 2019

Accepted after revision: 04 September 2019

Publication Date:
20 November 2019 (online)

   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The propensity for venous thromboembolism in patients admitted to neurocritical care setups is high because of predilection toward venous stasis as well as pathological processes favoring embolus formation and dissemination. The application of routine thromboprophylaxis guidelines in the various subsets of neurologically injured patients is limited by the fear of bleeding inside neurologically significant closed locations. The aim of this review is to lay out thromboprophylaxis guidelines in various subsets of patients admitted to neurocritical care setups according to recent evidence base, which is still an evolving process.

Keywords

thromboprophylaxis - neurocritical care - craniotomy
 

  • References

  • 1 Faraoni D, Comes RF, Geerts W, Wiles MD. ESA VTE Guidelines Task Force. European guidelines on perioperative venous thromboembolism prophylaxis: Neurosurgery. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2018; 35 (02) 90-95
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Castellucci LA, Wells PS, Duffett L. Nonleg venous thrombosis in critically ill adults. JAMA 2015; 313 (04) 411-412
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Lim W, Meade M, Lauzier F. et al. Prophylaxis for Thrombormbolism in Critical Care Trial Investigators. Failure of anticoagulant thromboprophylaxis: risk factors in medical-surgical critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2015; 43 (02) 401-410
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Ejaz A, Ahmed MM, Tasleem A. et al. Thromboprophylaxis in intensive care unit patients: a literature review. Cureus 2018; 10 (09) e3341
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Hull RD, Schellong SM, Tapson VF. et al. EXCLAIM (Extended Prophylaxis for Venous ThromboEmbolism in Acutely Ill Medical Patients With Prolonged Immobilization) study. Extended-duration venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in acutely ill medical patients with recently reduced mobility: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2010; 153 (01) 8-18
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Khan NR, Patel PG, Sharpe JP, Lee SL, Sorenson J. Chemical venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in neurosurgical patients: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 2018; 129 (04) 906-915
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Nyquist P, Bautista C, Jichici D. et al. Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis in neurocritical care patients: an evidence-based guideline: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society. Neurocrit Care 2016; 24 (01) 47-60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Kimmell KT, Jahromi BS. Clinical factors associated with venous thromboembolism risk in patients undergoing craniotomy. J Neurosurg 2015; 122 (05) 1004-1011
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Chaichana KL, Pendleton C, Jackson C. et al. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolisms in adult patients undergoing craniotomy for brain tumors. Neurol Res 2013; 35 (02) 206-211
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Smith TR, Nanney II AD, Lall RR. et al. Development of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in patients undergoing surgery for brain tumors: results from a single center over a 10 year period. J Clin Neurosci 2015; 22 (03) 519-525
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Rolston JD, Han SJ, Bloch O, Parsa AT. What clinical factors predict the incidence of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in neurosurgical patients?. J Neurosurg 2014; 121 (04) 908-918
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Algattas H, Kimmell KT, Vates GE, Jahromi BS. Analysis of venous thromboembolism risk in patients undergoing craniotomy. World Neurosurg 2015; 84 (05) 1372-1379
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Henwood PC, Kennedy TM, Thomson L. et al. The incidence of deep vein thrombosis detected by routine surveillance ultrasound in neurosurgery patients receiving dual modality prophylaxis. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2011; 32 (02) 209-214
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Hoefnagel D, Kwee LE, van Putten EHPP, Kros JM, Dirven CM, Dammers R. The incidence of postoperative thromboembolic complications following surgical resection of intracranial meningioma. A retrospective study of a large single center patient cohort. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2014; 123: 150-154
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Qian C, Yan H, Hu X, Zhang W, Liu H. Increased risk of venous thromboembolism in patients with brain tumors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thromb Res 2016; 137: 58-63
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Streiff MB, Ye X, Kickler TS. et al. A prospective multicenter study of venous thromboembolism in patients with newly-diagnosed high-grade glioma: hazard rate and risk factors. J Neurooncol 2015; 124 (02) 299-305
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Agnelli G, Piovella F, Buoncristiani P. et al. Enoxaparin plus compression stockings compared with compression stockings alone in the prevention of venous thromboembolism after elective neurosurgery. N Engl J Med 1998; 339 (02) 80-85
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Cerrat D, Arian C, Fiacchin F. Deep vein thrombosis and low-dose heparin prophylaxis in neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg 1978; 49 (03) 378-381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Melon E, Keravel Y, Gaston A. et al. Deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis by low molecular weight heparin in neurosurgical patients. Anesthesiology 1991; 75: A214 (Abstract)
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Nurmohamed MT, van Riel AM, Henkens CM. et al. Low molecular weight heparin and compression stockings in the prevention of venous thromboembolism in neurosurgery. Thromb Haemost 1996; 75 (02) 233-238
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Collen JF, Jackson JL, Shorr AF, Moores LK. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in neurosurgery: a metaanalysis. Chest 2008; 134 (02) 237-249
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Hamilton MG, Yee WH, Hull RD, Ghali WA. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in patients undergoing cranial neurosurgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosurgery 2011; 68 (03) 571-581
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Salmaggi A, Simonetti G, Trevisan E. et al. Perioperative thromboprophylaxis in patients with craniotomy for brain tumours: a systematic review. J Neurooncol 2013; 113 (02) 293-303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pine GF. et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133 (Suppl. 06) 381S-453S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Frisius J, Ebeling M, Karst M. et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolic complications with and without intermittent pneumatic compression in neurosurgical cranial procedures using intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging. A retrospective analysis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2015; 133: 46-54
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Sobieraj-Teague M, Hirsh J, Yip G. et al. Randomized controlled trial of a new portable calf compression device (Venowave) for prevention of venous thrombosis in high-risk neurosurgical patients. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10 (02) 229-235
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Lacut K, Bressollette L, Le Gal G. et al. VICTORIAh (Venous Intermittent Compression and Thrombosis Occurrence Related tIntra-cerebral Acute hemorrhage) Investigators. Prevention of venous thrombosis in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2005; 65 (06) 865-869
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Morgenstern LB, Hemphill JC, Anderson III C. American Heart Association Stroke Council and Council on Cardiovascular Nursing. et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2010; 41 (09) 2108-2129
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Diringer MN, Bleck TP, Claude III Hemphill J. Neurocritical Care Society. et al. Critical care management of patients following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: recommendations from the Neurocritical Care Society’s Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference. Neurocrit Care 2011; 15 (02) 211-240
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Steiner T, Al-Shahi Salman R, Beer R. et al. European Stroke Organisation. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Int J Stroke 2014; 9 (07) 840-855
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Hemphill JC, Greenberg SM, Anderson III CS. American Heart Association Stroke Council, et al. Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2015; 46 (07) 2032-2060
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Chibbar S, Tacconi L. Safety of deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin in brain surgery. Prospective study on 746 patients. Surg Neurol 2008; 70 (02) 117-121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Goldhaber SZ, Dunn K, Gerhard-Herman M, Park JK, Black PM. Low rate of venous thromboembolism after craniotomy for brain tumor using multimodality prophylaxis. Chest 2002; 122 (06) 1933-1937
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Dickinson LD, Miller LD, Patel CP, Gupta SK. Enoxaparin increases the incidence of postoperative intracranial hemorrhage when initiated preoperatively for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis in patients with brain tumors. Neurosurgery 1998; 43 (05) 1074-1081
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Schoenfeld AJ, Herzog JP, Dunn JC, Bader JO, Belmont Jr. PJ. Patient-based and surgical characteristics associated with the acute development of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism after spine surgery. Spine 2013; 38 (21) 1892-1898
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Gephart MGH, Zygourakis CC, Arrig RT, Kalanithi PS, Lad SP, Boakye M. Venous thromboembolism after thoracic/thoracolumbar spinal fusion. World Neurosurg 2012; 78 (05) 545-552
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Wang CY, Ignjatovic V, Francis P. et al. Risk factors and clinical features of acute pulmonary embolism in children from the community. Thromb Res 2016; 138: 86-90
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Fang MC, Maselli J, Lurie JD, Lindenauer PK, Pekow PS, Auerbach AD. Use and outcomes of venous thromboembolism prophylaxis after spinal fusion surgery. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (07) 1318-1325
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Yoshioka K, Murakami H, Demura S, Kat S, Tsuchiya H. Prevalence and risk factors for development of venous thromboembolism after degenerative spinal surgery. Spine 2015; 40 (05) E301
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Gerlach R, Raabe A, Beck J, Woszczyk A, Seifert V. Postoperative nadroparin administration for prophylaxis of thromboembolic events is not associated with an increased risk of hemorrhage after spinal surgery. Eur Spine J 2004; 13 (01) 9-13
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Sansone JM, del Rio AM, Anderson PA. The prevalence of and specific risk factors for venous thromboembolic disease following elective spine surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2010; 92 (02) 304-313
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Senders ZJ, Zussman BM, Maltenfort MG, Sharan AD, Ratliff JK, Harrop JS. The incidence of pulmonary embolism (PE) after spinal fusions. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2012; 114 (07) 897-901
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Glotzbecker MP, Bon CM, Wood KB, Harris MB. Thromboembolic disease in spinal surgery: a systematic review. Spine 2009; 34 (03) 291-303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Bono CM, Watters II WC, Heggeness MH. et al. An evidence-based clinical guideline for the use of antithrombotic therapies in spine surgery. Spine J 2009; 9 (12) 1046-1051
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Glotzbecker MP, Bono CM, Harris MB, Brick G, Heary RF, Wood KB. Surgeon practices regarding postoperative thromboembolic prophylaxis after high-risk spinal surgery. Spine 2008; 33 (26) 2915-2921
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Cox JB, Weaver KJ, Neal DW, Jacob RP, Hoh DJ. Decreased incidence of venous thromboembolism after spine surgery with early multimodal prophylaxis: Clinical article. J Neurosurg Spine 2014; 21 (04) 677-684
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Cunningham JE, Swamy G, Thomas KC. Does preoperative DVT chemoprophylaxis in spinal surgery affect the incidence of thromboembolic complications and spinal epidural hematomas?. J Spinal Disord Tech 2011; 24 (04) E31-E34
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Strom RG, Frempong-Boadu AK. Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis 24 t36 hours after degenerative spine surgery: risk of hemorrhage and venous thromboembolism. Spine 2013; 38 (23) E1498-E1502
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM. et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012; 141: e227S-e277S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Serrone JC, Wash EM, Hartings JA, Andaluz N, Zuccarello M. Venous thromboembolism in subarachnoid hemorrhage. World Neurosurg 2013; 80 (06) 859-863
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Vespa P. Participants in the International Multi-Disciplinary Consensus Conference on the Critical Care Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis. Neurocrit Care 2011; 15 (02) 295-297
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Ray WZ, Strom RG, Blackburn SL, Ashley WW, Sicard GA, Rich KM. Incidence of deep venous thrombosis after subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2009; 110 (05) 1010-1014
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Siironen J, Juvela S, Varis J. et al. Neffect of enoxaparin on outcome of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Neurosurg 2003; 99 (06) 953-959
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Juvela S, Siironen J, Varis J, Poussa K, Porras M. Risk factors for ischemic lesions following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 2005; 102 (02) 194-201
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Black PM, Baker MF, Snook CP. Experience with external pneumatic calf compression in neurology and neurosurgery. Neurosurgery 1986; 18 (04) 440-444
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Steiner T, Juvela S, Unterberg A, Jung C, Forsting M, Rinkel G. European Stroke Organization. European Stroke Organization guidelines for the management of intracranial aneurysms and subarachnoid haemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2013; 35 (02) 93-112
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Ishibashi T, Murayama Y, Saguchi T. et al. Thromboembolic events during endovascular coil embolization of cerebral aneurysms. Interv Neuroradiol 2006; 12 (Suppl. 01) 112-116
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Qureshi AI, Luft AR, Sharma M, Guterman LR, Hopkins LN. Prevention and treatment of thromboembolic and ischemic complications associated with endovascular procedures: part II—clinical aspects and recommendations. Neurosurgery 2000; 46 (06) 1360-1375 discussion 1375–1376
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Rahme RJ, Zammar SG, El Ahmadieh TY, El Tecle NE, Ansari SA, Bendok BR. The role of antiplatelet therapy in aneurysm coiling. Neurol Res 2014; 36 (04) 383-388
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Willard JE, Lange RA, Hillis LD. The use of aspirin in ischemic heart disease. N Engl J Med 1992; 327 (03) 175-181
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Fiehler J, Ries T. Prevention and treatment of thromboembolism during endovascular aneurysm therapy. Klin Neuroradiol 2009; 19 (01) 73-81
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Hwang G, Jung C, Park SQ. et al. Thromboembolic complications of elective coil embolization of unruptured aneurysms: the effect of oral antiplatelet preparation on periprocedural thromboembolic complication. Neurosurgery 2010; 67 (03) 743-748
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Yamada NK, Cross III DT, Pilgram TK, Moran CJ, Derdeyn CP, Dacey Jr RG. Effect of antiplatelet therapy on thromboembolic complications of elective coil embolization of cerebral aneurysms. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2007; 28 (09) 1778-1782
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Zhang XD, Wu HT, Zhu J, He ZH, Chai WN, Sun XC. Delayed intracranial hemorrhage associated with antiplatelet therapy in stent-assisted coil embolized cerebral aneurysms. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 2011; 110 (Pt 2) 133-139
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Bembenek J, Karlinski M, Kobayashi A, Czlonkowska A. Early stroke-related deep venous thrombosis: risk factors and influence on outcome. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2011; 32 (01) 96-102
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Soroceanu A, Burton DC, Oren JH. et al. International Spine Study Group. Medical complications after adult spinal deformity surgery: incidence, risk factors, and clinical impact. Spine 2016; 41 (22) 1718-1723
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Khan MT, Ikram A, Saeed O. et al. Deep vein thrombosis in acute stroke—a systemic review of the literature. Cureus 2017; 9 (12) e1982
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 International Stroke Trial Collaborative Group. The International Stroke Trial (IST): a randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997; 349 (9065) 1569-1581
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Kelly J, Rudd A, Lewis RR, Coshall C, Moody A, Hunt BJ. Venous thromboembolism after acute ischemic stroke: a prospective study using magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging. Stroke 2004; 35 (10) 2320-2325
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Sherman DG, Albers GW, Bladin C. et al. PREVAIL Investigators. The efficacy and safety of enoxaparin versus unfractionated heparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after acute ischaemic stroke (PREVAIL Study): an open-label randomised comparison. Lancet 2007; 369 9570 1347-1355
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Bath PM, Iddenden R, Bath FJ. Low-molecular-weight heparins and heparinoids in acute ischemic stroke : a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke 2000; 31 (07) 1770-1778
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Sandercock PA, Leong TS. Low-molecular-weight heparins or heparinoids versus standard unfractionated heparin for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 4: CD000119
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Kamphuisen PW, Agnelli G, Sebastianelli M. Prevention of venous thromboembolism after acute ischemic stroke. J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3 (06) 1187-1194
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 CLOTS (Clots in Legs Or sTockings after Stroke) Trial Collaboration. Thigh-length versus below-knee stockings for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis after stroke: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2010; 153: 553-562
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Dennis M, Sandercock P, Reid J, Graham C, Forbes J, Murray G. CLOTS (Clots in Legs Or sTockings after Stroke) Trials Collaboration. Effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression in reduction of risk of deep vein thrombosis in patients whhave had a stroke (CLOTS 3): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2013; 382 (9891) 516-524
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Dumas R, Woitinas F, Kutnowski M. et al. A multicentre, double-blind, randomized study tcompare the safety and efficacy of once-daily ORG 10172 and twice-daily low-dose heparin in preventing deep-vein thrombosis in patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Age Ageing 1994; 23 (06) 512-516
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Li L, Zhang P, Tian JH, Yang K. Statins for primary prevention of venous thromboembolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 12 (12) CD008203
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Lansberg MG, O’Donnell MJ, Khatri P. et al. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012; 141: e601S-e636S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Geerts WH, Code KI, Jay RM, Chen E, Szalai JP. A prospective study of venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med 1994; 331 (24) 1601-1606
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Brain Trauma Foundation; American Association of Neurological Surgeons; Congress of Neurological Surgeons; Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care, AANS/CNS. Bratton SL. et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. V. Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24 (Suppl. 01) S32-6 Erratum in: J Neurotrauma. 2008 Mar;25(3):276-278 J Neurotrauma. 2008; Mar; 25 (03) 276-278
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Phelan HA. Pharmacologic venous thromboembolism prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury: a critical literature review. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29 (10) 1821-1828
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Phelan HA, Eastman AL, Madden CJ. et al. TBI risk stratification at presentation: a prospective study of the incidence and timing of radiographic worsening in the Parkland Protocol. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 73 (02) (Suppl. 01) S122-S127
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Abdel-Aziz H, Dunham CM, Malik RJ, Hileman BM. Timing for deep vein thrombosis chemoprophylaxis in traumatic brain injury: an evidence-based review. Crit Care 2015; 19: 96
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Bee TK, Magnotti LJ, Croce MA. et al. Necessity of repeat head CT and ICU monitoring in patients with minimal brain injury. J Trauma 2009; 66 (04) 1015-1018
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Goldstein JN, Fazen LE, Wendell L. et al. Risk of thromboembolism following acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2009; 10 (01) 28-34
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Diringer MN, Skolnick BE, Mayer SA. et al. Thromboembolic events with recombinant activated factor VII in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: results from the Factor Seven for Acute Hemorrhagic Stroke (FAST) trial. Stroke 2010; 41 (01) 48-53
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Paciaroni M, Agnelli G, Venti M, Alberti A, Acciarresi M, Caso V. Efficacy and safety of anticoagulants in the prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage: a meta-analysis of controlled studies. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (05) 893-898
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS. et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2012; 141 (Suppl. 02) e195Se226S
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Gaber TA, Kirker SG, Jenner JR. Current practice of prophylactic anticoagulation in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Clin Rehabil 2002; 16 (02) 190-193
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Moore P, James O. Guillain-Barré Syndrome: incidence, management and outcome of major complications. Crit Care Med 1981; 9 (07) 549-555
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Ropper AH, Kehne SM. Guillain-Barré syndrome: management of respiratory failure. Neurology 1985; 35 (11) 1662-1665
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar