CC BY 4.0 · Journal of Child Science 2019; 09(01): e50-e58
DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1678669
Review Article
Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Apnea of Prematurity: An Update

Alex Gileles-Hillel
1   Pediatric Pulmonology, Sleep and CF Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center & Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
,
Ira Erlichman
2   Neonatology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center & Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
,
Joel Reiter
1   Pediatric Pulmonology, Sleep and CF Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center & Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

29 December 2018

03 January 2019

Publication Date:
02 July 2019 (online)

   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Apnea of prematurity (AOP) affects the majority of infants born prematurely, before 34 weeks of gestational age. AOP is a common diagnosis in the neonatal intensive care unit and one of significant clinical importance, both immediate and long term, as it is associated with reduced survival and poorer respiratory and neurodevelopmental outcomes. In this review, we provide an up-to-date summary of recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of AOP, as well as the clinical questions relevant to physicians and staff treating infants with AOP. Finally, we discuss monitoring and discharge decisions, as these are areas of significant uncertainty.

Keywords

apnea - hypoxia - prematurity - caffeine
 

  • References

  • 1 Harrison MS, Goldenberg RL. Global burden of prematurity. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2016; 21 (02) 74-79
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Bolton CE, Bush A, Hurst JR, Kotecha S, McGarvey L. Lung consequences in adults born prematurely. Thorax 2015; 70 (06) 574-580
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Sullivan MC, Winchester SB, Msall ME. Prematurity and cardiovascular risk at early adulthood. Child Care Health Dev 2019; 45 (01) 71-78
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Allotey J, Zamora J, Cheong-See F. , et al. Cognitive, motor, behavioural and academic performances of children born preterm: a meta-analysis and systematic review involving 64 061 children. BJOG 2018; 125 (01) 16-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Henderson-Smart DJ, Cohen G. Apnoea in the newborn infant. Aust Paediatr J 1986; 22 (Suppl. 01) 63-66
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Eichenwald EC. Committee on Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics. Apnea of prematurity. Pediatrics 2016;137(1)
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Kesavan K, Parga J. Apnea of prematurity: current practices and future directions. Neoreviews 2017; 18 (03) e149-e160
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Feldman JL, Mitchell GS, Nattie EE. Breathing: rhythmicity, plasticity, chemosensitivity. Annu Rev Neurosci 2003; 26: 239-266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Henderson-Smart DJ, Pettigrew AG, Campbell DJ. Clinical apnea and brain-stem neural function in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 1983; 308 (07) 353-357
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Carroll JL, Agarwal A. Development of ventilatory control in infants. Paediatr Respir Rev 2010; 11 (04) 199-207
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Di Fiore JM, Martin RJ, Gauda EB. Apnea of prematurity--perfect storm. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2013; 189 (02) 213-222
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Kumar P, Prabhakar NR. Peripheral chemoreceptors: function and plasticity of the carotid body. Compr Physiol 2012; 2 (01) 141-219
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Prabhakar NR, Peng YJ, Kumar GK, Pawar A. Altered carotid body function by intermittent hypoxia in neonates and adults: relevance to recurrent apneas. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2007; 157 (01) 148-153
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Donnelly DF. Developmental aspects of oxygen sensing by the carotid body. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2000; 88 (06) 2296-2301
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Gauda EB, Shirahata M, Mason A, Pichard LE, Kostuk EW, Chavez-Valdez R. Inflammation in the carotid body during development and its contribution to apnea of prematurity. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2013; 185 (01) 120-131
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Idiong N, Lemke RP, Lin YJ, Kwiatkowski K, Cates DB, Rigatto H. Airway closure during mixed apneas in preterm infants: is respiratory effort necessary?. J Pediatr 1998; 133 (04) 509-512
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Davies AM, Koenig JS, Thach BT. Upper airway chemoreflex responses to saline and water in preterm infants. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1988; 64 (04) 1412-1420
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Boggs DF, Bartlett Jr D. Chemical specificity of a laryngeal apneic reflex in puppies. J Appl Physiol 1982; 53 (02) 455-462
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Pickens DL, Schefft G, Thach BT. Prolonged apnea associated with upper airway protective reflexes in apnea of prematurity. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137 (01) 113-118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Corvaglia L, Spizzichino M, Aceti A. , et al. A thickened formula does not reduce apneas related to gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. Neonatology 2013; 103 (02) 98-102
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Harris P, Muñoz C, Mobarec S, Brockmann P, Mesa T, Sánchez I. Relevance of the pH probe in sleep study analysis in infants. Child Care Health Dev 2004; 30 (04) 337-344
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Di Fiore JM, Arko M, Whitehouse M, Kimball A, Martin RJ. Apnea is not prolonged by acid gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2005; 116 (05) 1059-1063
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Rossor T, Andradi G, Ali K, Bhat R, Greenough A. Gastro-oesophageal reflux and apnoea: is there a temporal relationship?. Neonatology 2018; 113 (03) 206-211
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Misra S, Macwan K, Albert V. Transpyloric feeding in gastroesophageal-reflux-associated apnea in premature infants. Acta Paediatr 2007; 96 (10) 1426-1429
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Corvaglia L, Monari C, Martini S, Aceti A, Faldella G. Pharmacological therapy of gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2013; 2013: 714564
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Bloch-Salisbury E, Hall MH, Sharma P, Boyd T, Bednarek F, Paydarfar D. Heritability of apnea of prematurity: a retrospective twin study. Pediatrics 2010; 126 (04) e779-e787
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Tamim H, Khogali M, Beydoun H, Melki I, Yunis K. ; National Collaborative Perinatal Neonatal Network. Consanguinity and apnea of prematurity. Am J Epidemiol 2003; 158 (10) 942-946
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Kumral A, Tuzun F, Yesilirmak DC, Duman N, Ozkan H. Genetic basis of apnoea of prematurity and caffeine treatment response: role of adenosine receptor polymorphisms: genetic basis of apnoea of prematurity. Acta Paediatr 2012; 101 (07) e299-e303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Nanduri J, Makarenko V, Reddy VD. , et al. Epigenetic regulation of hypoxic sensing disrupts cardiorespiratory homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109 (07) 2515-2520
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Ribeiro de Andrade Ramos B, da Silva MG. The burden of genetic and epigenetic traits in prematurity. Reprod Sci 2018; 25 (04) 471-479
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Lemyre B, Davis PG, De Paoli AG, Kirpalani H. Nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) for preterm neonates after extubation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 2: CD003212
    Google Scholar
  • 32 Sreenan C, Lemke RP, Hudson-Mason A, Osiovich H. High-flow nasal cannulae in the management of apnea of prematurity: a comparison with conventional nasal continuous positive airway pressure. Pediatrics 2001; 107 (05) 1081-1083
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Al-Alaiyan S, Dawoud M, Al-Hazzani F. Positive distending pressure produced by heated, humidified high flow nasal cannula as compared to nasal continuous positive airway pressure in premature infants. J Neonatal Perinatal Med 2014; 7 (02) 119-124
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Yoder BA, Stoddard RA, Li M, King J, Dirnberger DR, Abbasi S. Heated, humidified high-flow nasal cannula versus nasal CPAP for respiratory support in neonates. Pediatrics 2013; 131 (05) e1482-e1490
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Ciuffini F, Pietrasanta C, Lavizzari A. , et al. Comparison between two different modes of non-invasive ventilatory support in preterm newborn infants with respiratory distress syndrome mild to moderate: preliminary data. Pediatr Med Chir 2014; 36 (04) 88
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Gizzi C, Montecchia F, Panetta V. , et al. Is synchronised NIPPV more effective than NIPPV and NCPAP in treating apnoea of prematurity (AOP)? A randomised cross-over trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015; 100 (01) F17-F23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Kurlak LO, Ruggins NR, Stephenson TJ. Effect of nursing position on incidence, type, and duration of clinically significant apnoea in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1994; 71 (01) F16-F19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Kinney HC, Thach BT. The sudden infant death syndrome. N Engl J Med 2009; 361 (08) 795-805
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 McDonald FB, Chandrasekharan K, Wilson RJ, Hasan SU. Interactive effects of maternal cigarette smoke, heat stress, hypoxia, and lipopolysaccharide on neonatal cardiorespiratory and cytokine responses. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2016; 311 (06) R1113-R1124
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Hoffman HJ, Damus K, Hillman L, Krongrad E. Risk factors for SIDS. Results of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development SIDS Cooperative Epidemiological Study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988; 533: 13-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Manja V, Lakshminrusimha S, Cook DJ. Oxygen saturation target range for extremely preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr 2015; 169 (04) 332-340
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Raffay TM, Walsh MC. Pulse oximetry targets in extremely premature infants and associated mortality: one-size may not fit all. J Nat Sci 2018; 4 (06) e508
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Simakajornboon N, Beckerman RC, Mack C, Sharon D, Gozal D. Effect of supplemental oxygen on sleep architecture and cardiorespiratory events in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2002; 110 (05) 884-888
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Seppä-Moilanen M, Andersson S, Rantakari K, Mikkola K, Kirjavainen T. Caffeine and supplemental oxygen effectively suppress periodic breathing with only minor effects during long episodes of apnoea in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr 2018
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Kesavan K, Frank P, Cordero DM, Benharash P, Harper RM. Neuromodulation of limb proprioceptive afferents decreases apnea of prematurity and accompanying intermittent hypoxia and bradycardia. PLoS One 2016; 11 (06) e0157349
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Henderson-Smart DJ, Osborn DA. Kinesthetic stimulation for preventing apnea in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; (02) CD000373
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Marlier L, Gaugler C, Messer J. Olfactory stimulation prevents apnea in premature newborns. Pediatrics 2005; 115 (01) 83-88
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Doheny L, Hurwitz S, Insoft R, Ringer S, Lahav A. Exposure to biological maternal sounds improves cardiorespiratory regulation in extremely preterm infants. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012; 25 (09) 1591-1594
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Alvaro RE, Khalil M, Qurashi M. , et al. CO(2) inhalation as a treatment for apnea of prematurity: a randomized double-blind controlled trial. J Pediatr 2012; 160 (02) 252-257.e1
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Whyte R, Kirpalani H. Low versus high haemoglobin concentration threshold for blood transfusion for preventing morbidity and mortality in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; (11) CD000512
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Bell EF, Strauss RG, Widness JA. , et al. Randomized trial of liberal versus restrictive guidelines for red blood cell transfusion in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2005; 115 (06) 1685-1691
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Rigatto H, Desai U, Leahy F, Kalapesi Z, Cates D. The effect of 2% CO2, 100% O2, theophylline and 15% O2 on “inspiratory drive” and “effective” timing in preterm infants. Early Hum Dev 1981; 5 (01) 63-70
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Bhatt-Mehta V, Schumacher RE. Treatment of apnea of prematurity. Paediatr Drugs 2003; 5 (03) 195-210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Dobson NR, Hunt CE. Pharmacology review: caffeine use in neonates: indications, pharmacokinetics, clinical effects, outcomes. Neoreviews 2013; 14 (11) e540
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Parikka V, Beck J, Zhai Q, Leppäsalo J, Lehtonen L, Soukka H. The effect of caffeine citrate on neural breathing pattern in preterm infants. Early Hum Dev 2015; 91 (10) 565-568
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Dobson NR, Hunt CE. Caffeine: an evidence-based success story in VLBW pharmacotherapy. Pediatr Res 2018; 84 (03) 333-340
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Spitzer AR. Evidence-based methylxanthine use in the NICU. Clin Perinatol 2012; 39 (01) 137-148
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Abu-Shaweesh JM, Martin RJ. Neonatal apnea: what's new?. Pediatr Pulmonol 2008; 43 (10) 937-944
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Dobson NR, Patel RM, Smith PB. , et al. Trends in caffeine use and association between clinical outcomes and timing of therapy in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2014; 164 (05) 992-998.e3
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Kreutzer K, Bassler D. Caffeine for apnea of prematurity: a neonatal success story. Neonatology 2014; 105 (04) 332-336
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Schmidt B, Roberts RS, Davis P. , et al; Caffeine for Apnea of Prematurity Trial Group. Caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. N Engl J Med 2006; 354 (20) 2112-2121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Schmidt B, Roberts RS, Davis P. , et al; Caffeine for Apnea of Prematurity Trial Group. Long-term effects of caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. N Engl J Med 2007; 357 (19) 1893-1902
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Mürner-Lavanchy IM, Doyle LW, Schmidt B. , et al; Caffeine for Apnea of Prematurity (CAP) Trial Group. Neurobehavioral outcomes 11 years after neonatal caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. Pediatrics 2018; 141 (05) e20174047
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Schmidt B, Roberts RS, Anderson PJ. , et al; Caffeine for Apnea of Prematurity (CAP) Trial Group. Academic performance, motor function, and behavior 11 years after neonatal caffeine citrate therapy for apnea of prematurity: an 11-year follow-up of the cap randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr 2017; 171 (06) 564-572
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Henderson-Smart DJ, De Paoli AG. Methylxanthine treatment for apnoea in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; (12) CD000140
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Lodha A, Seshia M, McMillan DD. , et al; Canadian Neonatal Network. Association of early caffeine administration and neonatal outcomes in very preterm neonates. JAMA Pediatr 2015; 169 (01) 33-38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Kua KP, Lee SW. Systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical outcomes of early caffeine therapy in preterm neonates. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2017; 83 (01) 180-191
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Henderson-Smart DJ, De Paoli AG. Prophylactic methylxanthine for prevention of apnoea in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; (12) CD000432
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Vliegenthart R, Miedema M, Hutten GJ, van Kaam AH, Onland W. High versus standard dose caffeine for apnoea: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2018; 103 (06) F523-F529
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Mohammed S, Nour I, Shabaan AE, Shouman B, Abdel-Hady H, Nasef N. High versus low-dose caffeine for apnea of prematurity: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Pediatr 2015; 174 (07) 949-956
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Rhein LM, Dobson NR, Darnall RA. , et al; Caffeine Pilot Study Group. Effects of caffeine on intermittent hypoxia in infants born prematurely: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr 2014; 168 (03) 250-257
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Dobson NR, Rhein LM, Darnall RA. , et al; Caffeine Study Group. Caffeine decreases intermittent hypoxia in preterm infants nearing term-equivalent age. J Perinatol 2017; 37 (10) 1135-1140
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Yost CS. A new look at the respiratory stimulant doxapram. CNS Drug Rev 2006; 12 (3-4): 236-249
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 de Waal CG, Hutten GJ, Kraaijenga JV, de Jongh FH, van Kaam AH. Doxapram treatment and diaphragmatic activity in preterm infants. Neonatology 2019; 115 (01) 85-88
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Miyata M, Hata T, Kato N. , et al. Dynamic QT/RR relationship of cardiac conduction in premature infants treated with low-dose doxapram hydrochloride. J Perinat Med 2007; 35 (04) 330-333
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Tay-Uyboco J, Kwiatkowski K, Cates DB, Seifert B, Hasan SU, Rigatto H. Clinical and physiological responses to prolonged nasogastric administration of doxapram for apnea of prematurity. Biol Neonate 1991; 59 (04) 190-200
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Vliegenthart RJ, Ten Hove CH, Onland W, van Kaam AH. Doxapram treatment for apnea of prematurity: a systematic review. Neonatology 2017; 111 (02) 162-171
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Yamazaki T, Kajiwara M, Itahashi K, Fujimura M. Low-dose doxapram therapy for idiopathic apnea of prematurity. Pediatr Int 2001; 43 (02) 124-127
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Ten Hove CH, Vliegenthart RJ, Te Pas AB. , et al. Long-term neurodevelopmental outcome after doxapram for apnea of prematurity. Neonatology 2016; 110 (01) 21-26
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Flint R, Halbmeijer N, Meesters N. , et al. Retrospective study shows that doxapram therapy avoided the need for endotracheal intubation in most premature neonates. Acta Paediatr 2017; 106 (05) 733-739
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Prins SA, Pans SJ, van Weissenbruch MM, Walther FJ, Simons SH. Doxapram use for apnoea of prematurity in neonatal intensive care. Int J Pediatr 2013; 2013: 251047
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Ren J, Ding X, Greer JJ. Ampakines enhance weak endogenous respiratory drive and alleviate apnea in perinatal rats. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 191 (06) 704-710
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Marcus CL, Brooks LJ, Draper KA. , et al; American Academy of Pediatrics. Diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics 2012; 130 (03) 576-584
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Aurora RN, Zak RS, Karippot A. , et al; American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Practice parameters for the respiratory indications for polysomnography in children. Sleep (Basel) 2011; 34 (03) 379-388
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Kushida CA, Littner MR, Morgenthaler T. , et al. Practice parameters for the indications for polysomnography and related procedures: an update for 2005. Sleep 2005; 28 (04) 499-521
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Joosten K, de Goederen R, Pijpers A, Allegaert K. Sleep related breathing disorders and indications for polysomnography in preterm infants. Early Hum Dev 2017; 113: 114-119
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Osman AF, Thomas B, Singh N, Collin M, Shekhawat PS. Impact of infant-polysomnography studies on discharge management and outcomes: a 5 year experience from a tertiary care unit. J Neonatal Biol 2017; 6 (02) 257
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Aurora RN, Lamm CI, Zak RS. , et al. Practice parameters for the non-respiratory indications for polysomnography and multiple sleep latency testing for children. Sleep (Basel) 2012; 35 (11) 1467-1473
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Daniëls H, Naulaers G, Deroost F, Devlieger H. Polysomnography and home documented monitoring of cardiorespiratory pattern. Arch Dis Child 1999; 81 (05) 434-436
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Naulaers G, Daniels H, Allegaert K, Rayyan M, Debeer A, Devlieger H. Cardiorespiratory events recorded on home monitors: the effect of prematurity on later serious events. Acta Paediatr 2007; 96 (02) 195-198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Ho T, Dukhovny D, Zupancic JA, Goldmann DA, Horbar JD, Pursley DM. Choosing Wisely in Newborn Medicine: Five Opportunities to Increase Value. Pediatrics 2015; 136 (02) e482-e489
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Roberts T, Campbell A, Larsen P, Elder D. Preterm infants at discharge: nap polysomnography versus 24-hour oximetry. Acta Paediatr 2017; 106 (11) 1754-1759
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Zenteno D, Bancalari A, Navarro X, Díaz V, Rodríguez-Núñez I, Brockmann P. [Diagnosis of respiratory sleep disorders in newborns with suspected apneas: comparison between nocturnal saturometry and polygraphy]. Rev Chil Pediatr 2017; 88 (06) 759-764
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Task Force On Sudden Infant Death S. SIDS and Other Sleep-Related Infant Deaths. Updated 2016 recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment. Pediatrics 2016;138(5)
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Freed GE, Martinez F. The history of home cardiorespiratory monitoring. Pediatr Ann 2017; 46 (08) e303-e308
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Ramanathan R, Corwin MJ, Hunt CE. , et al; Collaborative Home Infant Monitoring Evaluation (CHIME) Study Group. Cardiorespiratory events recorded on home monitors: Comparison of healthy infants with those at increased risk for SIDS. JAMA 2001; 285 (17) 2199-2207
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Montenegro BL, Amberson M, Veit L, Freiberger C, Dukhovny D, Rhein LM. Economics of home monitoring for apnea in late preterm infants. Respir Care 2017; 62 (01) 42-48
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Jefferies AL. ; Canadian Paediatric Society, Fetus and Newborn Committee. Going home: facilitating discharge of the preterm infant. Paediatr Child Health 2014; 19 (01) 31-42
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Omeñaca F, Vázquez L, Garcia-Corbeira P. , et al. Immunization of preterm infants with GSK's hexavalent combined diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis-hepatitis B-inactivated poliovirus-Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine: a review of safety and immunogenicity. Vaccine 2018; 36 (07) 986-996
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Poets CF, Roberts RS, Schmidt B. , et al; Canadian Oxygen Trial Investigators. Association between intermittent hypoxemia or bradycardia and late death or disability in extremely preterm infants. JAMA 2015; 314 (06) 595-603
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Schmidt B, Anderson PJ, Doyle LW. , et al; Caffeine for Apnea of Prematurity (CAP) Trial Investigators. Survival without disability to age 5 years after neonatal caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. JAMA 2012; 307 (03) 275-282
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Atik A, Harding R, De Matteo R. , et al. Caffeine for apnea of prematurity: effects on the developing brain. Neurotoxicology 2017; 58: 94-102
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Ostfeld BM, Schwartz-Soicher O, Reichman NE, Teitler JO, Hegyi T. Prematurity and sudden unexpected infant deaths in the United States. Pediatrics 2017; 140 (01) e20163334
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Tuladhar R, Harding R, Cranage SM, Adamson TM, Horne RS. Effects of sleep position, sleep state and age on heart rate responses following provoked arousal in term infants. Early Hum Dev 2003; 71 (02) 157-169
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Horne RS, Andrew S, Mitchell K. , et al. Apnoea of prematurity and arousal from sleep. Early Hum Dev 2001; 61 (02) 119-133
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Southall DP, Richards JM, Rhoden KJ. , et al. Prolonged apnea and cardiac arrhythmias in infants discharged from neonatal intensive care units: failure to predict an increased risk for sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 1982; 70 (06) 844-851
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Rhein L, Simoneau T, Davis J. , et al. Reference values of nocturnal oxygenation for use in outpatient oxygen weaning protocols in premature infants. Pediatr Pulmonol 2012; 47 (05) 453-459
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Ortiz LE, McGrath-Morrow SA, Sterni LM, Collaco JM. Sleep disordered breathing in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Pulmonol 2017; 52 (12) 1583-1591
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Qubty WF, Mrelashvili A, Kotagal S, Lloyd RM. Comorbidities in infants with obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med 2014; 10 (11) 1213-1216
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Sharma PB, Baroody F, Gozal D, Lester LA. Obstructive sleep apnea in the formerly preterm infant: an overlooked diagnosis. Front Neurol 2011; 2: 73
    PubMedGoogle Scholar