Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2018; 31(05): 301-308
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1642054
Review Article
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Small Bowel and Colorectal Carcinoids

Raphael M. Byrne
1   Division of General and Gastrointestinal Surgery, Department of Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
,
Rodney F. Pommier
2   Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
04 September 2018 (online)

Abstract

Neuroendocrine tumors, or carcinoid tumors, of both the midgut and hindgut are quite rare, but their incidence is increasing. Surgery is the treatment of choice in patients who can tolerate an operation and have operable disease. Options for the treatment of metastatic disease include cytoreductive surgery, somatostatin analogues, interferon α, local liver therapies (hepatic arterial embolization, ablation), chemotherapy, Peptide-Receptor Radionucleotide Radiotherapy, angiogenesis inhibitors, and mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors.

 
  • References

  • 1 Modlin IM, Lye KD, Kidd M. A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors. Cancer 2003; 97 (04) 934-959
  • 2 Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A. , et al. One hundred years after “carcinoid”: epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26 (18) 3063-3072
  • 3 Cross AJ, Leitzmann MF, Subar AF, Thompson FE, Hollenbeck AR, Schatzkin A. A prospective study of meat and fat intake in relation to small intestinal cancer. Cancer Res 2008; 68 (22) 9274-9279
  • 4 Schatzkin A, Park Y, Leitzmann MF, Hollenbeck AR, Cross AJ. Prospective study of dietary fiber, whole grain foods, and small intestinal cancer. Gastroenterology 2008; 135 (04) 1163-1167
  • 5 Avenel P, McKendrick A, Silapaswan S. , et al. Gastrointestinal carcinoids: an increasing incidence of rectal distribution. Am Surg 2010; 76 (07) 759-763
  • 6 Niederle MB, Hackl M, Kaserer K, Niederle B. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours: the current incidence and staging based on the WHO and European Neuroendocrine Tumour Society classification: an analysis based on prospectively collected parameters. Endocr Relat Cancer 2010; 17 (04) 909-918
  • 7 Jetmore AB, Ray JE, Gathright Jr JB, McMullen KM, Hicks TC, Timmcke AE. Rectal carcinoids: the most frequent carcinoid tumor. Dis Colon Rectum 1992; 35 (08) 717-725
  • 8 Garcia-Carbonero R, Capdevila J, Crespo-Herrero G. , et al. Incidence, patterns of care and prognostic factors for outcome of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEP-NETs): results from the National Cancer Registry of Spain (RGETNE). Ann Oncol 2010; 21 (09) 1794-1803
  • 9 Ploeckinger U, Kloeppel G, Wiedenmann B, Lohmann R. ; representatives of 21 German NET Centers. The German NET-registry: an audit on the diagnosis and therapy of neuroendocrine tumors. Neuroendocrinology 2009; 90 (04) 349-363
  • 10 Ito T, Sasano H, Tanaka M. , et al. Epidemiological study of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors in Japan. J Gastroenterol 2010; 45 (02) 234-243
  • 11 Toth-Fejel S, Pommier RF. Relationships among delay of diagnosis, extent of disease, and survival in patients with abdominal carcinoid tumors. Am J Surg 2004; 187 (05) 575-579
  • 12 Graff-Baker AN, Sauer DA, Pommier SJ, Pommier RF. Expanded criteria for carcinoid liver debulking: maintaining survival and increasing the number of eligible patients. Surgery 2014; 156 (06) 1369-1376 , discussion 1376–1377
  • 13 Pape UF, Perren A, Niederle B. , et al; Barcelona Consensus Conference participants. ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the management of patients with neuroendocrine neoplasms from the jejuno-ileum and the appendix including goblet cell carcinomas. Neuroendocrinology 2012; 95 (02) 135-156
  • 14 Anthony LB, Strosberg JR, Klimstra DS. , et al; North American Neuroendocrine Tumor Society (NANETS). The NANETS consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors (nets): well-differentiated nets of the distal colon and rectum. Pancreas 2010; 39 (06) 767-774
  • 15 Caplin M, Sundin A, Nillson O. , et al; Barcelona Consensus Conference participants. ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the management of patients with digestive neuroendocrine neoplasms: colorectal neuroendocrine neoplasms. Neuroendocrinology 2012; 95 (02) 88-97
  • 16 Shields CJ, Tiret E, Winter DC. ; International Rectal Carcinoid Study Group. Carcinoid tumors of the rectum: a multi-institutional international collaboration. Ann Surg 2010; 252 (05) 750-755
  • 17 Gleeson FC, Levy MJ, Dozois EJ, Larson DW, Wong Kee Song LM, Boardman LA. Endoscopically identified well-differentiated rectal carcinoid tumors: impact of tumor size on the natural history and outcomes. Gastrointest Endosc 2014; 80 (01) 144-151
  • 18 Boudreaux JP, Klimstra DS, Hassan MM. , et al; North American Neuroendocrine Tumor Society (NANETS). The NANETS consensus guideline for the diagnosis and management of neuroendocrine tumors: well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors of the Jejunum, Ileum, Appendix, and Cecum. Pancreas 2010; 39 (06) 753-766
  • 19 Woltering E, Bergsland EK, Beyer DT. , et al. Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Jejunum and Ileum. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th ed. Chicago: Springer; 2017: 375
  • 20 Woltering E, Bergsland EK, Beyer DT. , et al. Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Appendix. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th ed. Chicago: Springer; 2017: 389
  • 21 Shi CWE, Woltering E, Beyer DT. , et al. Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Colon and Rectum. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th ed. Chicago: Springer; 2017: 395
  • 22 Mani S, Modlin IM, Ballantyne G, Ahlman H, West B. Carcinoids of the rectum. J Am Coll Surg 1994; 179 (02) 231-248
  • 23 Naunheim KS, Zeitels J, Kaplan EL. , et al. Rectal carcinoid tumors--treatment and prognosis. Surgery 1983; 94 (04) 670-676
  • 24 Fahy BN, Tang LH, Klimstra D. , et al. Carcinoid of the rectum risk stratification (CaRRS): a strategy for preoperative outcome assessment. Ann Surg Oncol 2007; 14 (02) 396-404
  • 25 Goebel SU, Serrano J, Yu F, Gibril F, Venzon DJ, Jensen RT. Prospective study of the value of serum chromogranin A or serum gastrin levels in the assessment of the presence, extent, or growth of gastrinomas. Cancer 1999; 85 (07) 1470-1483
  • 26 Tormey WP, FitzGerald RJ. The clinical and laboratory correlates of an increased urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Postgrad Med J 1995; 71 (839) 542-545
  • 27 Kobayashi K, Katsumata T, Yoshizawa S. , et al. Indications of endoscopic polypectomy for rectal carcinoid tumors and clinical usefulness of endoscopic ultrasonography. Dis Colon Rectum 2005; 48 (02) 285-291
  • 28 Ahmed A, Turner G, King B. , et al. Midgut neuroendocrine tumours with liver metastases: results of the UKINETS study. Endocr Relat Cancer 2009; 16 (03) 885-894
  • 29 Norlén O, Stålberg P, Öberg K. , et al. Long-term results of surgery for small intestinal neuroendocrine tumors at a tertiary referral center. World J Surg 2012; 36 (06) 1419-1431
  • 30 Condron ME, Pommier SJ, Pommier RF. Continuous infusion of octreotide combined with perioperative octreotide bolus does not prevent intraoperative carcinoid crisis. Surgery 2016; 159 (01) 358-365
  • 31 Kinney MA, Warner ME, Nagorney DM. , et al. Perianaesthetic risks and outcomes of abdominal surgery for metastatic carcinoid tumours. Br J Anaesth 2001; 87 (03) 447-452
  • 32 Massimino K, Harrskog O, Pommier S, Pommier R. Octreotide LAR and bolus octreotide are insufficient for preventing intraoperative complications in carcinoid patients. J Surg Oncol 2013; 107 (08) 842-846
  • 33 Rinke A, Müller HH, Schade-Brittinger C. , et al; PROMID Study Group. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors: a report from the PROMID Study Group. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27 (28) 4656-4663
  • 34 Caplin ME, Pavel M, Ruszniewski P. Lanreotide in metastatic enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2014; 371 (16) 1556-1557
  • 35 Koizumi M, Onda M, Tanaka N, Seya T, Yamada T, Takahashi Y. Antiangiogenic effect of octreotide inhibits the growth of human rectal neuroendocrine carcinoma. Digestion 2002; 65 (04) 200-206
  • 36 Höpfner M, Schuppan D, Scherübl H. Treatment of gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors with inhibitors of growth factor receptors and their signaling pathways: recent advances and future perspectives. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14 (16) 2461-2473
  • 37 Yao JC, Fazio N, Singh S. , et al; RAD001 in Advanced Neuroendocrine Tumours, Fourth Trial (RADIANT-4) Study Group. Everolimus for the treatment of advanced, non-functional neuroendocrine tumours of the lung or gastrointestinal tract (RADIANT-4): a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 study. Lancet 2016; 387 (10022): 968-977
  • 38 Strosberg J, El-Haddad G, Wolin E. , et al; NETTER-1 Trial Investigators. Phase 3 trial of (177)Lu-Dotatate for midgut neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2017; 376 (02) 125-135