Download PDF
Nervenheilkunde 2016; 35(10): 680-688
DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1616436
Update
Schattauer GmbH

Neues in der Behandlung neurologischer Notfälle

Update of treatment in neurological emergencies
M. Maschke
1   Abteilung für Neurologie und Neurophysiologie des Krankenhauses der Barmherzigen Brüder Trier
,
K. Schröder
1   Abteilung für Neurologie und Neurophysiologie des Krankenhauses der Barmherzigen Brüder Trier
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

eingegangen am: 20 May 2016

angenommen am: 01 June 2016

Publication Date:
10 January 2018 (online)

   Permissions and Reprints

Zusammenfassung

Innovationen: Akute neuromuskuläre Erkrankungen: Rituximab führt bei einer therapierefraktären Myasthenie häufig zu einer signifikanten Verbesserung. Studien weisen auf eine mögliche Wirkung von Eculizumab hin. Bei der Behandlung des Guillain-Barré-Syndroms sind Plasmapherese und Immunglobuline gleichwertig, die Immunadsorption eine gute Alternative. Kortikosteroide scheinen die Prognose zu verschlechtern. Ischämische Schlaganfälle: Neuerungen sind positive Studien zur Thrombektomie. Die Destiny-II-Studie wies bei Patienten über dem 70. Lebensjahr mit einem malignen Mediainfarkt eine Senkung der Mortalität durch eine Hemikraniektomie nach. Intrazerebrale Blutungen: Die INTERACT-2-Studie wies keine sichere Überlegenheit einer aggressiven Blutdrucksättigung nach. In der Therapie der intrazerebralen Blutung ist der STICH-II-Trial zur operativen Therapie von Lobärhämatomen abgeschlossen, eine frühe Operation zeigte keinen eindeutigen Vorteil. Die SAIVMs-Studie wies einen Nachteil der operativen Exzision von Kavernomen gegenüber einem konservativen Vorgehen bezüglich des Outcomes nach 5 Jahren nach. Gleiches gilt für unrupturierte arteriovenöse Malformationen. Meningitis und Enzephalitis: Neuere Studien zeigen einen Rückgang der Inzidenz der Meningitis durch Meningokokken und Pneumokokken. Die Dexamethason-Gabe bei bakterieller Meningitis ist nach den aktualisierten DGN-Leitlinien nur noch nach einer nachgewiesenen Pneumokokkenmeningitis empfohlen. Bei anderen bakteriellen Meningitiden sollte jedoch nach mikrobiologischen Resultaten Dexamethason abgesetzt werden. Bezüglich viraler Enzephalitiden ist die zusätzliche Gabe von Valaciclovir nach einer intravenösen Gabe von Aciclovir bei Herpes-simplex-Enzephalitis nicht prognoseverbessernd. In Serbien wurden mehr als 50 Fälle mit einer West-Nil-Virus-Enzephalitis nachgewiesen, ebenso erste Fälle in Österreich, sodass das Virus in die Differenzialdiagnose einbezogen werden muss. Das in Polynesien, Südamerika und in der Karibik endemisch vorkommende Zikah-Virus führt häufig zu einem parainfektiösen Guillain-Barré-Syndrom, seltener zu einer Meningoenzephalitis.

Summary

Innovations: Acute neuromuscular disease: Rituximab significantly improve treatment-refractory Myasthenia gravis. Studies hints at a possible efficacy of eculizumab. Plasmapheresis and i.v. Immunoglobulins appear to have the same efficacy in treatment of acute Guillain-Barré syndrome, immunadsorption is a good alternative. In contrast, corticosteroids impair prognosis in GBS. Ischaemic stroke: Several positive randomized studies proved efficacy of thrombectomy. Thus, thrombectomy with stent retrievers after bridging thrombolysis is evidence based. The Destiny II trial revealed a significant decrease of mortality by hemicraniectomy in patients older than 70 years with malignant stroke in the medial cerebral artery territory. Intracerebral hemorrhage: INTERACT2 trial showed no significant improvement with aggressive treatment of arterial hypertension in comparison to conservative approaches to decrease arterial hypertension in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. STICH-II trial investigated whether early surgical treatment is superior to conservative treatment in patients with lobar haematoma. The trial revealed no difference between both treatment approaches. SAIVMs trial showed a better outcome of conservative vs. surgical treatment in patients with intracranial cavernous after 5 years. A similar result was found for unruptured intracranial arteriovenous malformations. Meningitis and encephalitis: Studies showed a decrease in incidence of meningococcal and pneumococcal meningitis. Administration of dexamethasone in patients with acute bacterial meningitis is recommended only for patients with pneumococcal meningitis according to DGN guidelines. In acute meningitis due to other bacteria it should be withdrawn after microbiological results are received. In herpes simplex virus encephalitis the additional administration of valaciclovir after i.v. aciclovir has no influence on outcome. In Serbia 50 cases of West Nil virus encephalitis have been detected, other cases have been revealed in Austria hinting at inclusion of this virus in the differential diagnosis of encephalitis in Europe. Very recently, the Zikah virus which is endemic in Polynesia, South America and Caribbean regions has been shown to cause parainfectious Guillain-Barré syndrome, rarely meningoencephalitis.

Schlüsselwörter

Maligner Mediainfarkt - intrazerebrale Blutung - bakterielle Meningitis - virale Enzephalitis - Intensivneurologie

Keywords

Malignant brain infarction - intracerebral hemorrhage - bacterial meningitis - viral encephalitis - neurological intensive care medicine
 

  • Literatur

  • 1 Al-Shahi Salman R, White PM, Counsell CE, du Plessis J, van Beijnum J, Josephson CB, Wilkinson T, Wedderburn CJ, Chandy Z, St George EJ, Sellar RJ, Warlow CP. Outcome after conservative management or intervention for unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations. JAMA 2014; 311: 1661-1669.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Askmark H, Haggård L, Nygren I, Punga AR. Vitamin D deficiency in patients with myasthenia gravis and improvement of fatigue after supplementation of vitamin D3: a pilot study. Eur J Neurol 2012; 19: 1554-1560.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Anderson CS, Heeley E, Huang Y, Wang J, Stapf C, Delcourt C, Lindley R, Robinson T, Lavados P, Neal B, Hata J, Arima H, Parsons M, Li Y, Wang J, Heritier S, Li Q, Woodward M, Simes RJ, Davis SM, Chalmers J. Rapid blood-pressure lowering in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 2355-2365.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Back C, Wittmann M, Haen E. Medikamentös induziertes Delir. Ther Umsch 2011; 68: 27-33.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Baracchini C, Tonello S, Farina F, Viaro F, Atzori M, Ballotta E, Manara R. Jugular veins in transient global amnesia: innocent bystanders. Stroke 2012; 43: 2289-2292.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Barth D, Nabavi Nouri M, Ng E, Nwe P, Bril V. Comparison of IVIg and PLEX in patients with myasthenia gravis. Neurology 2011; 76: 2017-2023.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Bartsch T, Deuschl G. Transient global amnesia: functional anatomy and clinical implications. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9: 205-214.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Bartsch T, Alfke K, Wolff S, Rohr A, Jansen O, Deuschl G. Focal MR spectroscopy of hippocampal CA-1 lesions in transient global amnesia. Neurology 2008; 70: 1030-1035.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Berger JR, Houff S. Neurological complications of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Arch Neurol 2008; 65: 596-600.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Berkhemer OA, Fransen PS, Beumer D. et al. A randomized trial of intraarterial treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 11-20.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Bobinger T, Köhrmann M, Raaz-Schrauder D, Schwab S, Kallmünzer B. Lost memories can break your heart: a case report of transient global amnesia followed by takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Clin Res Cardiol 2013; 102: 693-696.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Brain S, Webb A, Zentar M, Turner MR. Seasonal variation, sub-type and prodromal illnesses in guillain-barre syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013; 84: e2.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Broderick JP, Palesch YY, Demchuk AM, Yeatts SD, Khatri P, Hill MD, Jauch EC, Jovin TG, Yan B, Silver FL, von Kummer R, Molina CA, Demaerschalk BM, Budzik R, Clark WM, Zaidat OO, Malisch TW, Goyal M, Schonewille WJ, Mazighi M, Engelter ST, Anderson C, Spilker J, Carrozzella J, Ryckborst KJ, Janis LS, Martin RH, Foster LD, Tomsick TA. Endovascular therapy after intravenous t-PA versus t-PA alone for stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 893-903.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, de Gans J, Prasad K, van de Beek D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 9: CD004405.
    Google Scholar
  • 15 Butcher KS, Jeerakathil T, Hill M, Demchuk AM, Dowlatshahi D, Coutts SB, Gould B, McCourt R, Asdaghi N, Findlay JM, Emery D, Shuaib A. The Intracerebral Hemorrhage Acutely Decreasing Arterial Pressure Trial. Stroke 2013; 44: 620-626.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Campbell BC, Mitchell PJ. Kleinig et al. Endovascular therapy for ischemic stroke with perfusion-imaging selection. N Engl J Med. 2015; 372: 1009-1118.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Campbell BC, Donnan GA, Lees KR, Hacke W, Khatri P, Hill MD, Goyal M, Mitchell PJ, Saver JL, Diener HC, Davis SM. Endovascular stent thrombectomy: the new standard of care for large vessel ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14: 846-854.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Preliminary results: surveillance for Guillain-Barré syndrome after receipt of influenza A (H1N1) 2009 monovalent vaccine – United States, 2009–2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2010; 59: 657-661.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Chamberlain JM, Okada P, Holsti M, Mahajan P, Brown KM, Vance C, Gonzalez V, Lichenstein R, Stanley R, Brousseau DC, Grubenhoff J, Zemek R, Johnson DW, Clemons TE, Baren J. Lorazepam vs diazepam for pediatric status epilepticus: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014; 311: 1652-1660.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Chandra RV, Law CP, Yan B, Dowling RJ, Mitchell PJ. Glasgow coma scale does not predict outcome post-intra-arterial treatment for basilar artery thrombosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2011; 32: 576-580.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Ciccone A, Valvassori L, Nichelatti M, Sgoifo A, Ponzio M, Sterzi R, Boccardi E. Endovascular treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 904-913.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Collongues N, Casez O, Lacour A, Tranchant C, Vermersch P, de Seze J, Lebrun C. Rituximab in refractory and non-refractory myasthenia: A retrospective multicenter study. Muscle Nerve 2012; 46: 687-691.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Courand PY, Sibellas F, Gonidec S, Mechtouff L, Kirkorian G, Bonnefoy E. Acute myocardial infarction: a precipitating event for transient global amnesia. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 2014; 15: 78-79.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Demchuk AM, Dowlatshahi D, Rodriguez-Luna D, Molina CA, Blas YS, Dzialowski I, Kobayashi A, Boulanger JM, Lum C, Gubitz G, Padma V, Roy J, Kase CS, Kosior J, Bhatia R, Tymchuk S, Subramaniam S, Gladstone DJ, Hill MD. Prediction of haematoma growth and outcome in patients with intracerebral haemorrhage using the CT-angiography spot sign (PREDICT): a prospective observational study. Lancet Neurol 2012; 11: 307-314.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Desmond RA, Accortt NA, Talley L, Villano SA, Soong SJ, Whitley RJ. Enteroviral meningitis: natural history and outcome of pleconaril therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 2409-2414.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Dorhout Mees SM, Algra A, Vandertop WP, van Kooten F, Kuijsten HA, Boiten J, van Oostenbrugge RJ, Al-Shahi Salman R, Lavados PM, Rinkel GJ, van den Bergh WM. Magnesium for aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage (MASH-2): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2012; 380: 44-49.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Dowlatshahi D, Smith EE, Flaherty ML, Ali M, Lyden P, Demchuk AM. Small intracerebral haemorrhages are associated with less haematoma expansion and better outcomes. Int J Stroke 2011; 6: 201-206.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Fischer M, Lindsey N, Staples JE, Hills S. Japanese encephalitis vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2010; 59 (RR-1): 1-27.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Fujii S, Tanimukai H, Kashiwagi Y. Comparison and analysis of delirium induced by histamine h(2) receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors in cancer patients. Case Rep Oncol 2012; 5: 409-412.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Galldiks N, Dohmen C, Neveling M, Fink GR, Haupt WF. Selective immune adsorption treatment of severe Guillain Barré syndrome in the intensive care unit. Neurocrit Care 2009; 11: 317-321.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Gautret P, Cramer JP, Field V, Caumes E, Jensenius M, Gkrania-Klotsas E, de Vries PJ, Grobusch MP, Lopez-Velez R, Castelli F, Schlagenhauf P, Hervius Askling H, von Sonnenburg F, Lalloo DG, Loutan L, Rapp C, Basto F, Santos O’Connor F, Weld L, Parola P. Infectious diseases among travellers and migrants in Europe, EuroTravNet 2010. Euro Surveill 2012; 17: 20205
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Gilden D, White T, Khmeleva N. et al. Prevalence and distribution of VZV in temporal arteries of patients with giant cell arteritis. Neurology 2015; 84: 1948-1955.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Gnann JW, Sköldenberg B, Hart J. et al. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. Herpes simplex encephalitis: lack of clinical benefit of lon-term valacyclovir therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 61: 683-691
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Goenka A, Michael B, Ledger E, Hart I, Absoud M, Chow G, Lilleker J, Lim M, Lunn M, Peake D, Pysden K, Roberts M, Carrol E, Avula S, Solomon T, Kneen R. Neurological manifestations of influenza infection in adults and children: results of a national british surveillance study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013; 84 (11) e2.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Goyal M, Demchuk AM, Menon BK. et al. Randomized assessment of rapid endovascular treatment of ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 1019-1030.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Heckenberg SG, Brouwer MC, van der Ende A, van de Beek D. Adjunctive dexamethasone in adults with meningococcal meningitis. Neurology 2012; 79: 1563-1569.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Hoffmann B, Tappe D, Höper D. et al. A variegated squirrel bornavirus associated with fatal human encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 154-162.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Howard Jr JF, Barohn RJ, Cutter GR, Freimer M, Juel VC, Mozaffar T, Mellion ML, Benatar MG, Farrugia ME, Wang JJ, Malhotra SS, Kissel JT. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II study of eculizumab in patients with refractory generalized myasthenia gravis. Muscle Nerve 2013; 48: 76-84.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Hufschmidt A, Shabarin V, Zimmer T. Drug-induced confusional states: the usual suspects?. Acta Neurol Scand 2009; 120: 436-438.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Hughes RA, van Doorn PA. Corticosteroids for Guillain-Barré syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 8: CD001446.
    Google Scholar
  • 41 Jacob S, Viegas S, Leite MI, Webster R, Cossins J, Kennett R, Hilton-Jones D, Morgan BP, Vincent A. Presence and pathogenic relevance of antibodies to clustered acetylcholine receptor in ocular and generalized myasthenia gravis. Arch Neurol 2012; 69: 994-1001.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Jovin TG, Chamorro A, Cobo E. Thrombectomy within 8 hours after symptom onset in ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 2296-2306.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Jüttler E, Unterberg A, Woitzik J, Bösel J, Amiri H, Sakowitz OW, Gondan M, Schiller P, Limprecht R, Luntz S, Schneider H, Pinzer T, Hobohm C, Meixensberger J, Hacke W. Hemicraniectomy in older patients with extensive middle-cerebral-artery stroke. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 1091-1100.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Kawai N, Ikematsu H, Iwaki N, Maeda T, Kanazawa H, Kawashima T, Tanaka O, Yamauchi S, Kawamura K, Nagai T, Horii S, Hirotsu N, Kashiwagi S. A comparison of the effectiveness of zanamivir and oseltamivir for the treatment of influenza A and B. J Infect 2008; 56: 51-57.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Kalaria RN, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB. Delirium, dementia and senility. Brain 2012; 135: 2582-2584.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Khan F, Pallant JF, Amatya B, Ng L, Gorelik A, Brand C. Outcomes of high- and low-intensity rehabilitation programme for persons in chronic phase after Guillain-Barré syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. J Rehabil Med 2011; 43: 638-646.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Kidwell CS, Jahan R, Gornbein J, Alger JR, Nenov V, Ajani Z, Feng L, Meyer BC, Olson S, Schwamm LH, Yoo AJ, Marshall RS, Meyers PM, Yavagal DR, Wintermark M, Guzy J, Starkman S, Saver JL. A trial of imaging selection and endovascular treatment for ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 914-923.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Kirkman MA, Mahattanakul W, Gregson BA, Mendelow AD. The effect of the results of the STICH trial on the management of spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haemorrhage in Newcastle. Br J Neurosurg 2008; 22: 739-746.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Koga M, Kusunoki S, Kaida K, Uehara R, Nakamura Y, Kohriyama T, Kanda T. Nationwide survey of patients in Japan with Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis: epidemiological and clinical characteristics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012; 83: 1210-1215.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Kuitwaard K, de Gelder J, Tio-Gillen AP, Hop WC, van Gelder T, van Toorenenbergen AW, van Doorn PA, Jacobs BC. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous immunoglobulin and outcome in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol 2009; 66: 597-603.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Lee SH, Lim GH, Kim JS, Oh SY, Kim JK, Cha JK, Yun CH, Kang JK, Lee H, Song HK, Chung KC. Acute ophthalmoplegia (without ataxia) associated with anti-GQ1b antibody. Neurology 2008; 71: 426-429.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Lehmann HC, Hartung HP, Kieseier BC, Hughes RA. Guillain-Barré syndrome after exposure to influenza virus. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10: 643-651.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Leite MI, Coutinho E, Lana-Peixoto M, Apostolos S, Waters P, Sato D, Melamud L, Marta M, Graham A, Spillane J, Villa AM, Callegaro D, Santos E, da Silva AM, Jarius S, Howard R, Nakashima I, Giovannoni G, Buckley C, Hilton-Jones D, Vincent A, Palace J. Myasthenia gravis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: a multicenter study of 16 patients. Neurology 2012; 78: 1601-1607.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Lizarraga KJ, Alexandre LC, Ramos-Estebanez C, Merenda A. Are steroids a beneficial adjunctive therapy in the immunosuppressed patient with herpes simplex virus encephalitis?. Case Rep Neurol 2013; 5: 52-55.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Macdonald RL, Kassell NF, Mayer S, Ruefenacht D, Schmiedek P, Weidauer S, Frey A, Roux S, Pasqualin A. Clazosentan to overcome neurological ischemia and infarction occurring after subarachnoid hemorrhage (CONSCIOUS-1): randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 dose-finding trial. Stroke 2008; 39: 3015-3021.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Macdonald RL, Higashida RT, Keller E, Mayer SA, Molyneux A, Raabe A, Vajkoczy P, Wanke I, Bach D, Frey A, Marr A, Roux S, Kassell N. Clazosentan, an endothelin receptor antagonist, in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage undergoing surgical clipping: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial (CONSCIOUS-2). Lancet Neurol 2011; 10: 618-625.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Macdonald RL, Higashida RT, Keller E, Mayer SA, Molyneux A, Raabe A, Vajkoczy P, Wanke I, Bach D, Frey A, Nowbakht P, Roux S, Kassell N. Randomized trial of clazosentan in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage undergoing endovascular coiling. Stroke 2012; 43: 1463-1469.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Mandawat A, Kaminski HJ, Cutter G, Katirji B, Alshekhlee A. Comparative analysis of therapeutic options used for myasthenia gravis. Ann Neurol 2010; 68: 797-805.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Fernandes HM, Murray GD, Teasdale GM, Hope DT, Karimi A, Shaw MD, Barer DH. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet 2005; 365: 387-397.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Rowan EN, Murray GD, Gholkar A, Mitchell PM. STICH II Investigators. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial lobar intracerebral haematomas (STICH II): a randomised trial. Lancet 2013; 382: 397-408.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Meyding-Lamadé U. et al. Virale Meningitis. In: Diener HC, Weimar C. (Hrsg.) Leitlinien für Diagnostik und Therapie in der Neurologie. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Neurologie. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2012
    Google Scholar
  • 62 Misra UK, Kalita J, Maurya PK. Levetiracetam versus lorazepam in status epilepticus: a randomized, open labeled pilot study. J Neurol 2012; 259: 645-648.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Moultrie F, Horne MA, Josephson CB, Hall JM, Counsell CE, Bhattacharya JJ, Papanastassiou V, Sellar RJ, Warlow CP, Murray GD, Al-Shahi Salman R. Outcome after surgical or conservative management of cerebral cavernous malformations. Neurology 2014; 83: 582-589.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Molyneux E, Nizami SQ, Saha S, Huu KT, Azam M, Bhutta ZA, Zaki R, Weber MW, Qazi SA. 5 versus 10 days of treatment with ceftriaxone for bacterial meningitis in children: a double-blind randomised equivalence study. Lancet 2011; 377: 1837-1845.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Munster BC, Aronica E, Zwinderman AH, Eikelenboom P, Cunningham C, Rooij SE. Neuroinflammation in delirium: a postmortem case-control study. Rejuvenation Res 2011; 14: 615-622.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Naidech AM, Shaibani A, Garg RK, Duran IM, Liebling SM, Bassin SL, Bendok BR, Bernstein RA, Batjer HH, Alberts MJ. Prospective, randomized trial of higher goal hemoglobin after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2010; 13: 313-320.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Nguyen TH, Tran TH, Thwaites G, Ly VC, Dinh XS, Ho Dang TN, Dang QT, Nguyen DP, Nguyen HP, To SD, Nguyen VC, Nguyen MD, Campbell J, Schultsz C, Parry C, Torok ME, White N, Nguyen TC, Tran TH, Stepniewska K, Farrar JJ. Dexamethasone in Vietnamese adolescents and adults with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2431-340.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Oehler E, Watrin L, Larre P, Leparc-Goffart I, Lastere S, Valour F, Baudouin L, Mallet H, Musso D, Ghawche F. Zika virus infection complicated by Guillain-Barre syndrome – case report, French Polynesia, December 2013. Euro Surveill 2014; 19: 20720
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Peitz GJ, Balas MC, Olsen KM, Pun BT, Ely EW. Top 10 myths regarding sedation and delirium in the ICU. Crit Care Med 2013; 41 (09) (Suppl. 01) S46-56.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Petersen LR, Brault AC, Nasci RS. West Nile virus: review of the literature. JAMA 2013; 310: 308-315.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Pfefferkorn T, Mayer TE, Opherk C, Peters N, Straube A, Pfister HW, Holtmannspötter M, Müller-Schunk S, Wiesmann M, Dichgans M. Staged escalation therapy in acute basilar artery occlusion: intravenous thrombolysis and on-demand consecutive endovascular mechanical thrombectomy: preliminary experience in 16 patients. Stroke 2008; 39: 1496-1500.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Pfister HW. et al. Ambulant erworbene bakterielle (eitrige) Meningoenzephalitis. In: Diener HC, Weimar C. (Hrsg.) Leitlinien für Diagnostik und Therapie in der Neurologie. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Neurologie. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2012
    Google Scholar
  • 73 Popovic N, Miloševic B, Uroševic A, Poluga J, Lavadinovic L, Nedelkovic J, Jevtovic D, Dulovic O. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection among humans in Serbia, August to October 2012. Euro Surveill 2013; 18 (43) 20613
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Power KN, Flaatten H, Gilhus NE, Engelsen BA. Propofol treatment in adult refractory status epilepticus. Mortality risk and outcome. Epilepsy Res 2011; 94: 53-60.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Ravanini P, Huhtamo E, Ilaria V, Crobu M, Nicosia A, Servino L, Rivasi F, Allegrini S, Miglio U, Magri A, Minisini R, Vapalahti O, Boldorini R. Japanese encephalitis virus RNA detected in Culex pipiens mosquitoes in Italy. Euro Surveill 2012; 17 (28) 20221
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Rizzo C, Salcuni P, Nicoletti L, Ciufolini MG, Russo F, Masala R, Frongia O, Finarelli AC, Gramegna M, Gallo L, Pompa MG, Rezza G, Salmaso S, Declich S. Epidemiological surveillance of West Nile neuroinvasive diseases in Italy, 2008 to 2011. Euro Surveill 2012; 17 (20) 20172
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Rossetti AO, Milligan TA, Vulliémoz S, Michaelides C, Bertschi M, Lee JW. A randomized trial for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2011; 14: 4-10.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Saito K, Shimizu F, Koga M, Sano Y, Tasaki A, Abe M, Haruki H, Maeda T, Suzuki S, Kusunoki S, Mizusawa H, Kanda T. Blood-brain barrier destruction determines Fisher/Bickerstaff clinical phenotypes: an in vitro study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013; 84: 756-765.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Sakurai T, Kimura A, Tanaka Y, Hozumi I, Ogura S, Inuzuka T. Case of adult influenza type A virus-associated encephalopathy successfully treated with primary multidisciplinary treatments. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2007; 47: 639-643.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Santamarina E, Toledo M, Sueiras M, Raspall M, Ailouti N, Lainez E, Porta I, de Gracia R, Quintana M, Alvarez-Sabín J, Puig XS. Usefulness of intravenous lacosamide in status epilepticus. J Neurol 2013; 260: 3122-3128.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar