Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2017; 21(03): 240-256
DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1602414
Review Article
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Emergency and Trauma of Hand and Wrist

Rik B. Kraan
1   Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
,
Frances E. Walstra
2   Department of Radiology, Noordwestziekenhuisgroep Alkmaar, The Netherlands
,
Teun Teunis
3   Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
,
Frank Smithuis
1   Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
,
Cornelis F. Van Dijke
2   Department of Radiology, Noordwestziekenhuisgroep Alkmaar, The Netherlands
,
Mario Maas
1   Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
01 June 2017 (online)

Abstract

Traumatic injuries of the hand and wrist are common in daily practice. Several challenges arise in the process of diagnosis and guiding the clinician. Knowledge of the complex finger, hand, and wrist anatomy is essential to understand the broad array of traumatic injuries extending from (stress)fractures to ligament, tendon, and neurovascular injuries. This article provides an overview of the different imaging techniques used in the evaluation of the hand and wrist. Emphasis is placed on the most common traumatic injuries of the hand, wrist, and fingers, and the imaging modality of choice in evaluating these injuries.

 
  • References

  • 1 Bernstein ML, Chung KC. Hand fractures and their management: an international view. Injury 2006; 37 (11) 1043-1048
  • 2 Chung KC, Spilson SV. The frequency and epidemiology of hand and forearm fractures in the United States. J Hand Surg Am 2001; 26 (05) 908-915
  • 3 Goldfarb CA, Yin Y, Gilula LA, Fisher AJ, Boyer MI. Wrist fractures: what the clinician wants to know. Radiology 2001; 219 (01) 11-28
  • 4 Nellans KW, Kowalski E, Chung KC. The epidemiology of distal radius fractures. Hand Clin 2012; 28 (02) 113-125
  • 5 Suh N, Ek ET, Wolfe SW. Carpal fractures. J Hand Surg Am 2014; 39 (04) 785-791 ; quiz 791
  • 6 Cockenpot E, Lefebvre G, Demondion X, Chantelot C, Cotten A. Imaging of sports-related hand and wrist injuries: sports imaging series. Radiology 2016; 279 (03) 674-692
  • 7 Wieschhoff GG, Sheehan SE, Wortman JR. , et al. Traumatic finger injuries: what the orthopedic surgeon wants to know. Radiographics 2016; 36 (04) 1106-1128
  • 8 Abraham MK, Scott S. The emergent evaluation and treatment of hand and wrist injuries. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2010; 28 (04) 789-809
  • 9 Sundaram N, Bosley J, Stacy GS. Conventional radiographic evaluation of athletic injuries to the hand. Radiol Clin North Am 2013; 51 (02) 239-255
  • 10 Rhemrev SJ, Ootes D, Beeres FJ, Meylaerts SA, Schipper IB. Current methods of diagnosis and treatment of scaphoid fractures. Int J Emerg Med 2011; 4: 4
  • 11 Yoong P, Goodwin RW, Chojnowski A. Phalangeal fractures of the hand. Clin Radiol 2010; 65 (10) 773-780
  • 12 Porrino Jr JA, Maloney E, Scherer K, Mulcahy H, Ha AS, Allan C. Fracture of the distal radius: epidemiology and premanagement radiographic characterization. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014; 203 (03) 551-559
  • 13 Bhat AK, Kumar B, Acharya A. Radiographic imaging of the wrist. Indian J Plast Surg 2011; 44 (02) 186-196
  • 14 Jedlinski A, Kauer JM, Jonsson K. X-ray evaluation of the true neutral position of the wrist: the groove for extensor carpi ulnaris as a landmark. J Hand Surg Am 1995; 20 (03) 511-512
  • 15 Medoff RJ. Essential radiographic evaluation for distal radius fractures. Hand Clin 2005; 21 (03) 279-288
  • 16 Henry MH. Distal radius fractures: current concepts. J Hand Surg Am 2008; 33 (07) 1215-1227
  • 17 Schneppendahl J, Windolf J, Kaufmann RA. Distal radius fractures: current concepts. J Hand Surg Am 2012; 37 (08) 1718-1725
  • 18 Walenkamp MM, Bentohami A, Slaar A. , et al. The Amsterdam wrist rules: the multicenter prospective derivation and external validation of a clinical decision rule for the use of radiography in acute wrist trauma. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2015; 16: 389
  • 19 Slaar A, Walenkamp MM, Bentohami A. , et al. A clinical decision rule for the use of plain radiography in children after acute wrist injury: development and external validation of the Amsterdam Pediatric Wrist Rules. Pediatr Radiol 2016; 46 (01) 50-60
  • 20 Katz MA, Beredjiklian PK, Bozentka DJ, Steinberg DR. Computed tomography scanning of intra-articular distal radius fractures: does it influence treatment?. J Hand Surg Am 2001; 26 (03) 415-421
  • 21 Metz VM, Gilula LA. Imaging techniques for distal radius fractures and related injuries. Orthop Clin North Am 1993; 24 (02) 217-228
  • 22 Hunt JJ, Lumsdaine W, Attia J, Balogh ZJ. AO type-C distal radius fractures: the influence of computed tomography on surgeon's decision-making. ANZ J Surg 2013; 83 (09) 676-678
  • 23 Harness NG, Ring D, Zurakowski D, Harris GJ, Jupiter JB. The influence of three-dimensional computed tomography reconstructions on the characterization and treatment of distal radial fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2006; 88 (06) 1315-1323
  • 24 Teunis T, Bosma NH, Lubberts B, Ter Meulen DP, Ring D. Melone's concept revisited: 3D quantification of fragment displacement. J Hand Microsurg 2016; 8 (01) 27-33
  • 25 Burns JE, Tanaka T, Ueno T, Nakamura T, Yoshioka H. Pitfalls that may mimic injuries of the triangular fibrocartilage and proximal intrinsic wrist ligaments at MR imaging. Radiographics 2011; 31 (01) 63-78
  • 26 Tanaka T, Yoshioka H, Ueno T, Shindo M, Ochiai N. Comparison between high-resolution MRI with a microscopy coil and arthroscopy in triangular fibrocartilage complex injury. J Hand Surg Am 2006; 31 (08) 1308-1314
  • 27 Beasley RW. Injuries of the carpal complex. In: Beasley RW. , ed. Beasley's Surgery of the Hand. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Thieme Medical; 2003
  • 28 Loredo RA, Sorge DG, Garcia G. Radiographic evaluation of the wrist: a vanishing art. Semin Roentgenol 2005; 40 (03) 248-289
  • 29 Gilula LA. Carpal injuries: analytic approach and case exercises. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1979; 133 (03) 503-517
  • 30 You JS, Chung SP, Chung HS, Park IC, Lee HS, Kim SH. The usefulness of CT for patients with carpal bone fractures in the emergency department. Emerg Med J 2007; 24 (04) 248-250
  • 31 Schmitt R, Rosenthal H. ; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Unfallchirurgie (DGU, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Orthopädie und Orthopädische Chirurgie (DGOOC), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Handchirurgie (DGH), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Plastische Rekonstruktive und Ästhetische Chirurgie (DGPRÄC), Deutsche Röntgengesellschaft (DRG), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Muskuloskelettale Radiologie (DGMSR). Bildgebende Diagnostik der Skaphoidfrakturen nach den aktuellen S3-Leitlinien. RoFo Fortschr Geb Rontgenstr Nuklearmed 2016; 188 (05) 459-469
  • 32 Obert L, Loisel F, Jardin E, Gasse N, Lepage D. High-energy injuries of the wrist. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2016; 102 (1, Suppl): S81-S93
  • 33 Mallee W, Doornberg JN, Ring D, van Dijk CN, Maas M, Goslings JC. Comparison of CT and MRI for diagnosis of suspected scaphoid fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2011; 93 (01) 20-28
  • 34 Yin ZG, Zhang JB, Kan SL, Wang XG. Diagnosing suspected scaphoid fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2010; 468 (03) 723-734
  • 35 Mallee WH, Wang J, Poolman RW. , et al. Computed tomography versus magnetic resonance imaging versus bone scintigraphy for clinically suspected scaphoid fractures in patients with negative plain radiographs. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (06) CD010023
  • 36 Newberg A, Dalinka MK, Alazraki N. , et al. Acute hand and wrist trauma. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria. Radiology 2000; 215 (Suppl): 375-378
  • 37 Karl JW, Swart E, Strauch RJ. Diagnosis of occult scaphoid fractures: a cost-effectiveness analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2015; 97 (22) 1860-1868
  • 38 Murthy NS, Ringler MD. MR imaging of carpal fractures. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2015; 23 (03) 405-416
  • 39 Obdeijn MC, van der Vlies CH, van Rijn RR. Capitate and hamate fracture in a child: the value of MRI imaging. Emerg Radiol 2010; 17 (02) 157-159
  • 40 Dallaudière B, Meyer P, Larbi A. , et al. Magnetic resonance arthrography of the wrist with axial traction: an iconographic review. Diagn Interv Imaging 2015; 96 (12) 1307-1312
  • 41 Guntern D, Becce F, Richarme D, Palhais NS, Meuli R, Theumann N. Direct magnetic resonance arthrography of the wrist with axial traction: a feasibility study to assess joint cartilage. J Magn Reson Imaging 2011; 34 (01) 239-244
  • 42 Moser T, Dosch JC, Moussaoui A, Dietemann JL. Wrist ligament tears: evaluation of MRI and combined MDCT and MR arthrography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188 (05) 1278-1286
  • 43 Cerezal L, de Dios Berná-Mestre J, Canga A. , et al. MR and CT arthrography of the wrist. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2012; 16 (01) 27-41
  • 44 De Smet AA, Doherty MP, Norris MA, Hollister MC, Smith DL. Are oblique views needed for trauma radiography of the distal extremities?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999; 172 (06) 1561-1565
  • 45 Faccioli N, Foti G, Barillari M, Atzei A, Mucelli RP. Finger fractures imaging: accuracy of cone-beam computed tomography and multislice computed tomography. Skeletal Radiol 2010; 39 (11) 1087-1095
  • 46 Heuck A, Bonél H, Stäbler A, Schmitt R. Imaging in sports medicine: hand and wrist. Eur J Radiol 1997; 26 (01) 2-15
  • 47 Berthold LD, Peter A, Ishaque N, Mauermann F, Böhringer G, Klose KJ. Measurement of torsion angles of long finger bones using computed tomography. Skeletal Radiol 2001; 30 (10) 579-583
  • 48 Gupta P, Lenchik L, Wuertzer SD, Pacholke DA. High-resolution 3-T MRI of the fingers: review of anatomy and common tendon and ligament injuries. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2015; 204 (03) W314-W323
  • 49 Peterson JJ, Bancroft LW, Kransdorf MJ, Berquist TH, Magee TH, Murray PM. Evaluation of collateral ligament injuries of the metacarpophalangeal joints with magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance arthrography. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol 2007; 36 (01) 11-20
  • 50 Clavero JA, Alomar X, Monill JM. , et al. MR imaging of ligament and tendon injuries of the fingers. Radiographics 2002; 22 (02) 237-256
  • 51 Sofka CM. Ultrasound of the hand and wrist. Ultrasound Q 2014; 30 (03) 184-192
  • 52 Finlay K, Lee R, Friedman L. Ultrasound of intrinsic wrist ligament and triangular fibrocartilage injuries. Skeletal Radiol 2004; 33 (02) 85-90
  • 53 Middleton WD, Teefey SA, Boyer MI. Hand and wrist sonography. Ultrasound Q 2001; 17 (01) 21-36
  • 54 Miller TL, Kaeding CC. Upper-extremity stress fractures: distribution and causative activities in 70 patients. Orthopedics 2012; 35 (09) 789-793
  • 55 Webb BG, Rettig LA. Gymnastic wrist injuries. Curr Sports Med Rep 2008; 7 (05) 289-295
  • 56 Guha AR, Marynissen H. Stress fracture of the hook of the hamate. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36 (03) 224-225
  • 57 Balius R, Pedret C, Estruch A, Hernández G, Ruiz-Cotorro A, Mota J. Stress fractures of the metacarpal bones in adolescent tennis players: a case series. Am J Sports Med 2010; 38 (06) 1215-1220
  • 58 Chen NC, Jupiter JB. Management of distal radial fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2007; 89 (09) 2051-2062
  • 59 Müller ME. The Comprehensive Classification of Fractures of Long Bones. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 1990: xiii
  • 60 Melone Jr CP. Open treatment for displaced articular fractures of the distal radius. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1986; (202) 103-111
  • 61 Rikli DA, Regazzoni P. Fractures of the distal end of the radius treated by internal fixation and early function. A preliminary report of 20 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1996; 78 (04) 588-592
  • 62 Prommersberger KJ, Lanz UB. Corrective osteotomy of the distal radius through volar approach. Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg 2004; 8 (02) 70-77
  • 63 Levin LS, Rozell JC, Pulos N. Distal radius fractures in the elderly. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2017; 25 (03) 179-187
  • 64 Abbaszadegan H, Conradi P, Jonsson U. Fixation not needed for undisplaced Colles' fracture. Acta Orthop Scand 1989; 60 (01) 60-62
  • 65 Finger A. , et al. Do patients prefer optional follow-up for simple upper extremity fractures: A pilot study. Injury 2015; 47 (10) 2276-2282
  • 66 American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. The treatment of distal radius fractures: guidelines and evidence report. Available at: http://www.aaos.org/research/guidelines/drfsummary.pdf . Accessed April 13, 2017
  • 67 Souer JS, Ring D, Matschke S, Audige L, Marent-Huber M, Jupiter JB. ; AOCID Prospective ORIF Distal Radius Study Group. Effect of an unrepaired fracture of the ulnar styloid base on outcome after plate-and-screw fixation of a distal radial fracture. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2009; 91 (04) 830-838
  • 68 Buijze GA, Ring D. Clinical impact of united versus nonunited fractures of the proximal half of the ulnar styloid following volar plate fixation of the distal radius. J Hand Surg Am 2010; 35 (02) 223-227
  • 69 Uzel AP, Bulla A, Tchéro H, Tsiaviry P, Bourges C, Daculsi G. Intra-articular distal radial fracture with lunate fossa rotated, about 4 cases: interest of surgical procedure by volar medial approach [in French]. Chir Main 2013; 32 (01) 37-43
  • 70 Garala K, Taub NA, Dias JJ. The epidemiology of fractures of the scaphoid: impact of age, gender, deprivation and seasonality. Bone Joint J 2016; 98-B (05) 654-659
  • 71 Duckworth AD, Jenkins PJ, Aitken SA, Clement ND, Court-Brown CM, McQueen MM. Scaphoid fracture epidemiology. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 72 (02) E41-E45
  • 72 Avery III DM, Rodner CM, Edgar CM. Sports-related wrist and hand injuries: a review. J Orthop Surg 2016; 11 (01) 99
  • 73 Rettig AC. Athletic injuries of the wrist and hand. Part I: traumatic injuries of the wrist. Am J Sports Med 2003; 31 (06) 1038-1048
  • 74 Kaewlai R, Avery LL, Asrani AV, Abujudeh HH, Sacknoff R, Novelline RA. Multidetector CT of carpal injuries: anatomy, fractures, and fracture-dislocations. Radiographics 2008; 28 (06) 1771-1784
  • 75 Hodgkinson DW, Kurdy N, Nicholson DA, Driscoll PA. ABC of emergency radiology. The wrist. BMJ 1994; 308 (6926): 464-468
  • 76 Arsalan-Werner A, Sauerbier M, Mehling IM. Current concepts for the treatment of acute scaphoid fractures. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2016; 42 (01) 3-10
  • 77 Alshryda S, Shah A, Odak S, Al-Shryda J, Ilango B, Murali SR. Acute fractures of the scaphoid bone: systematic review and meta-analysis. Surgeon 2012; 10 (04) 218-229
  • 78 Höcker K, Menschik A. Chip fractures of the triquetrum. Mechanism, classification and results. J Hand Surg [Br] 1994; 19 (05) 584-588
  • 79 Shah MA, Viegas SF. Fractures of the carpal bones excluding the scaphoid. J Am Soc Surg Hand 2002; 2 (03) 129-140
  • 80 Abboud JA, Beredjiklian PK, Bozentka DJ. Nonunion of a triquetral body fracture. A case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2003; 85-A (12) 2441-2444
  • 81 Budoff JE. Treatment of acute lunate and perilunate dislocations. J Hand Surg Am 2008; 33 (08) 1424-1432
  • 82 Herzberg G. Perilunate and axial carpal dislocations and fracture-dislocations. J Hand Surg Am 2008; 33 (09) 1659-1668
  • 83 Taneja AK, Bredella MA, Chang CY, Joseph Simeone F, Kattapuram SV, Torriani M. Extrinsic wrist ligaments: prevalence of injury by magnetic resonance imaging and association with intrinsic ligament tears. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2013; 37 (05) 783-789
  • 84 Rajan PV, Day CS. Scapholunate interosseous ligament anatomy and biomechanics. J Hand Surg Am 2015; 40 (08) 1692-1702
  • 85 Slutsky DJ, Trevare J. Scapholunate and lunotriquetral injuries: arthroscopic and open management. Sports Med Arthrosc Rev 2014; 22 (01) 12-21
  • 86 Mayfield JK, Johnson RP, Kilcoyne RK. Carpal dislocations: pathomechanics and progressive perilunar instability. J Hand Surg Am 1980; 5 (03) 226-241
  • 87 Scalcione LR, Gimber LH, Ho AM, Johnston SS, Sheppard JE, Taljanovic MS. Spectrum of carpal dislocations and fracture-dislocations: imaging and management. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014; 203 (03) 541-550
  • 88 Kitay A, Wolfe SW. Scapholunate instability: current concepts in diagnosis and management. J Hand Surg Am 2012; 37 (10) 2175-2196
  • 89 Morrell NT, Moyer A, Quinlan N, Shafritz AB. Scapholunate and perilunate injuries in the athlete. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2017; 10 (01) 45-52
  • 90 van de Grift TC, Ritt MJ. Management of lunotriquetral instability: a review of the literature. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2016; 41 (01) 72-85
  • 91 Forward DP, Lindau TR, Melsom DS. Intercarpal ligament injuries associated with fractures of the distal part of the radius. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2007; 89 (11) 2334-2340
  • 92 Yamazaki H, Uchiyama S, Komatsu M. , et al. Arthroscopic assistance does not improve the functional or radiographic outcome of unstable intra-articular distal radial fractures treated with a volar locking plate: a randomised controlled trial. Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B (07) 957-962
  • 93 Wijffels M, Brink P, Schipper I. Clinical and non-clinical aspects of distal radioulnar joint instability. Open Orthop J 2012; 6: 204-210
  • 94 Mino DE, Palmer AK, Levinsohn EM. Radiography and computerized tomography in the diagnosis of incongruity of the distal radio-ulnar joint. A prospective study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1985; 67 (02) 247-252
  • 95 Nakamura R, Horii E, Imaeda T, Tsunoda K, Nakao E. Distal radioulnar joint subluxation and dislocation diagnosed by standard roentgenography. Skeletal Radiol 1995; 24 (02) 91-94
  • 96 Ahn AK, Chang D, Plate AM. Triangular fibrocartilage complex tears: a review. Bull NYU Hosp Jt Dis 2006; 64 (3-4): 114-118
  • 97 Albastaki U, Sophocleous D, Göthlin J, Pierre-Jerome C. Magnetic resonance imaging of the triangular fibrocartilage complex lesions: a comprehensive clinicoradiologic approach and review of the literature. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2007; 30 (07) 522-526
  • 98 Chan JJ, Teunis T, Ring D. Prevalence of triangular fibrocartilage complex abnormalities regardless of symptoms rise with age: systematic review and pooled analysis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2014; 472 (12) 3987-3994
  • 99 Oetgen ME, Dodds SD. Non-operative treatment of common finger injuries. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2008; 1 (02) 97-102
  • 100 Chinchalkar SJ, Gan BS. Management of proximal interphalangeal joint fractures and dislocations. J Hand Ther 2003; 16 (02) 117-128
  • 101 Boussakri H, Elidrissi M, Azarkane M. , et al. Fractures of the neck of the fifth metacarpal bone, treated by percutaneous intramedullary nailing: surgical technique, radiological and clinical results study (28 cases). Pan Afr Med J 2014; 18: 187
  • 102 McCarthy C, Samora JB, Awan H. Metacarpal shaft fractures: a review. OA Orthopaedics 2014; 2 (02) 12
  • 103 Altizer L. Boxer's fracture. Orthop Nurs 2006; 25 (04) 271-273 ; quiz 274–275
  • 104 Kollitz KM, Hammert WC, Vedder NB, Huang JI. Metacarpal fractures: treatment and complications. Hand (NY) 2014; 9 (01) 16-23
  • 105 Tuncer S, Aksu N, Dilek H, Ozkan T, Hamzaoglu A. Fractures of the fingers missed or misdiagnosed on poorly positioned or poorly taken radiographs: a retrospective study. J Trauma 2011; 71 (03) 649-655
  • 106 Kozin SH, Thoder JJ, Lieberman G. Operative treatment of metacarpal and phalangeal shaft fractures. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2000; 8 (02) 111-121
  • 107 Stern PJ, Roman RJ, Kiefhaber TR, McDonough JJ. Pilon fractures of the proximal interphalangeal joint. J Hand Surg Am 1991; 16 (05) 844-850
  • 108 Borchers JR, Best TM. Common finger fractures and dislocations. Am Fam Physician 2012; 85 (08) 805-810
  • 109 Abzug JM, Kozin SH. Seymour fractures. J Hand Surg Am 2013; 38 (11) 2267-2270 ; quiz 2270
  • 110 Liverneaux PA, Ichihara S, Hendriks S, Facca S, Bodin F. Fractures and dislocation of the base of the thumb metacarpal. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2015; 40 (01) 42-50
  • 111 Carlsen BT, Moran SL. Thumb trauma: Bennett fractures, Rolando fractures, and ulnar collateral ligament injuries. J Hand Surg Am 2009; 34 (05) 945-952
  • 112 Lopez-Ben R, Lee DH, Nicolodi DJ. Boxer knuckle (injury of the extensor hood with extensor tendon subluxation): diagnosis with dynamic US—report of three cases. Radiology 2003; 228 (03) 642-646
  • 113 Hame SL, Melone Jr CP. Boxer's knuckle. Traumatic disruption of the extensor hood. Hand Clin 2000; 16 (03) 375-380 , viii
  • 114 Pfirrmann CW, Theumann NH, Botte MJ, Drapé JL, Trudell DJ, Resnick D. MR imaging of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the fingers: part II. Detection of simulated injuries in cadavers. Radiology 2002; 222 (02) 447-452
  • 115 Dinh P, Franklin A, Hutchinson B, Schnall SB, Fassola I. Metacarpophalangeal joint dislocation. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2009; 17 (05) 318-324
  • 116 DeCoster TA, McGrew D, Omer GE. Complex dorsal dislocation of the metacarpophalangeal joint: the deep transverse metacarpal ligament as a barrier to reduction. Iowa Orthop J 1988; 8: 9-12
  • 117 Pattni A, Jones M, Gujral S. Volar plate avulsion injury. Eplasty 2016; 16: ic22
  • 118 Ramponi D, Cerepani MJ. Finger proximal interphalangeal joint dislocation. Adv Emerg Nurs J 2015; 37 (04) 252-257
  • 119 Ng CY, Oliver CW. Fractures of the proximal interphalangeal joints of the fingers. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2009; 91 (06) 705-712
  • 120 Freiberg A. Management of proximal interphalangeal joint injuries. Can J Plast Surg 2007; 15 (04) 199-203
  • 121 Bachoura A, Ferikes AJ, Lubahn JD. A review of mallet finger and jersey finger injuries in the athlete. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2017; 10 (01) 1-9
  • 122 Leddy JP, Packer JW. Avulsion of the profundus tendon insertion in athletes. J Hand Surg Am 1977; 2 (01) 66-69
  • 123 Cheung K, Hatchell A, Thoma A. Approach to traumatic hand injuries for primary care physicians. Can Fam Physician 2013; 59 (06) 614-618
  • 124 Zafonte B, Rendulic D, Szabo RM. Flexor pulley system: anatomy, injury, and management. J Hand Surg Am 2014; 39 (12) 2525-2532 ; quiz 2533
  • 125 Grandizio LC, Klena JC. Sagittal band, boutonniere, and pulley injuries in the athlete. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2017; 10 (01) 17-22
  • 126 Leeflang S, Coert JH. The role of proximal pulleys in preventing tendon bowstringing: pulley rupture and tendon bowstringing. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2014; 67 (06) 822-827
  • 127 Kontor JA. Extensor tendon injuries and repairs in the hand. Can Fam Physician 1982; 28: 1159-1163
  • 128 Madan SS, Pai DR, Kaur A, Dixit R. Injury to ulnar collateral ligament of thumb. Orthop Surg 2014; 6 (01) 1-7
  • 129 Stener B. Skeletal injuries associated with rupture of the ulnar collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb. A clinical and anatomical study. Acta Chir Scand 1963; 125: 583-586
  • 130 Rhee PC, Jones DB, Kakar S. Management of thumb metacarpophalangeal ulnar collateral ligament injuries. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2012; 94 (21) 2005-2012
  • 131 Ebrahim FS, De Maeseneer M, Jager T, Marcelis S, Jamadar DA, Jacobson JA. US diagnosis of UCL tears of the thumb and Stener lesions: technique, pattern-based approach, and differential diagnosis. Radiographics 2006; 26 (04) 1007-1020
  • 132 Harper MT, Chandnani VP, Spaeth J, Santangelo JR, Providence BC, Bagg MA. Gamekeeper thumb: diagnosis of ulnar collateral ligament injury using magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance arthrography and stress radiography. J Magn Reson Imaging 1996; 6 (02) 322-328
  • 133 Suk JI, Walker FO, Cartwright MS. Ultrasonography of peripheral nerves. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2013; 13 (02) 328
  • 134 Bienek T, Kusz D, Cielinski L. Peripheral nerve compression neuropathy after fractures of the distal radius. J Hand Surg [Br] 2006; 31 (03) 256-260
  • 135 Cansü E, Heydar AM, Elekberov A, Ünal MB. Neglected lunate dislocation presenting as carpal tunnel syndrome. Case Reports Plast Surg Hand Surg 2015; 2 (01) 22-24
  • 136 Miller TT, Reinus WR. Nerve entrapment syndromes of the elbow, forearm, and wrist. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2010; 195 (03) 585-594
  • 137 Earp BE, Floyd WE, Louie D, Koris M, Protomastro P. Ulnar nerve entrapment at the wrist. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2014; 22 (11) 699-706
  • 138 Viddeleer AR, Sijens PE, van Ooijen PM. , et al. Quantitative STIR of muscle for monitoring nerve regeneration. J Magn Reson Imaging 2016; 44 (02) 401-410
  • 139 Klitscher D, Müller LP, Rudig L, Simiantonaki N, Arnold G, Rommens PM. “Progressive” hypothenar hammer syndrome Indication for operative treatment [in German]. Chirurg 2005; 76 (12) 1175-1180
  • 140 Ablett CT, Hackett LA. Hypothenar hammer syndrome: case reports and brief review. Clin Med Res 2008; 6 (01) 3-8
  • 141 Duwayri YM, Emery VB, Driskill MR. , et al. Positional compression of the axillary artery causing upper extremity thrombosis and embolism in the elite overhead throwing athlete. J Vasc Surg 2011; 53 (05) 1329-1340
  • 142 Atema JJ, Unlü C, Reekers JA, Idu MM. Posterior circumflex humeral artery injury with distal embolisation in professional volleyball players: a discussion of three cases. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2012; 44 (02) 195-198
  • 143 van de Pol D, Maas M, Terpstra A. , et al. Ultrasound assessment of the posterior circumflex humeral artery in elite volleyball players: aneurysm prevalence, anatomy, branching pattern and vessel characteristics. Eur Radiol 2017; 27 (03) 889-898