Semin Neurol 2015; 35(03): 235-244
DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1552619
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Infective Causes of Epilepsy

M. Bonello
1   The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
,
B.D. Michael
1   The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
2   The Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
,
T. Solomon
1   The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
2   The Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
10 June 2015 (online)

Abstract

A wide range of infections of the central nervous system are responsible for both acute seizures and epilepsy. The pathogenesis and clinical semiology of the seizure disorders vary widely between the infective pathogens. The exact mechanisms underlying this are poorly understood, but appear, at least in part, to relate to the pathogen; the degree of cortical involvement; delays in treatment; and the host inflammatory response. The treatment of infective causes of seizures involves both symptomatic treatment with antiepileptic drugs and direct treatment of the underlying condition. In many cases, early treatment of the infection may affect the prognosis of the epilepsy syndrome. The greatest burden of acute and long-term infection-related seizures occurs in resource-poor settings, where both clinical and research facilities are often lacking to manage such patients adequately. Nevertheless, education programs may go a long way toward addressing the stigma, leading to improved diagnosis, management, and ultimately to better quality of life.

 
  • References

  • 1 Solomon T, Michael BD, Smith PE , et al; National Encephalitis Guidelines Development and Stakeholder Groups. Management of suspected viral encephalitis in adults—Association of British Neurologists and British Infection Association National Guidelines. J Infect 2012; 64 (4) 347-373
  • 2 Kneen R, Michael BD, Menson E , et al; National Encephalitis Guidelines Development and Stakeholder Groups. Management of suspected viral encephalitis in children - Association of British Neurologists and British Paediatric Allergy, Immunology and Infection Group national guidelines. J Infect 2012; 64 (5) 449-477
  • 3 Michael BD, Sidhu M, Stoeter D , et al; North West Neurological Infections Network. Acute central nervous system infections in adults—a retrospective cohort study in the NHS North West region. QJM 2010; 103 (10) 749-758
  • 4 Misra UK, Tan CT, Kalita J. Viral encephalitis and epilepsy. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (Suppl. 06) 13-18
  • 5 Michael BD, Solomon T. Seizures and encephalitis: clinical features, management, and potential pathophysiologic mechanisms. Epilepsia 2012; 53 (Suppl. 04) 63-71
  • 6 Misra UK, Kalita J. Seizures in encephalitis: predictors and outcome. Seizure 2009; 18 (8) 583-587
  • 7 Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ , et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005-2009. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (4) 676-685
  • 8 Whitley RJ. Herpes simplex encephalitis: adolescents and adults. Antiviral Res 2006; 71 (2-3) 141-148
  • 9 Widener RW, Whitley RJ. Herpes simplex virus. In: Alex CT, John B, , eds. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol 123. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 2014: 251-263
  • 10 Tyler KL. Herpes simplex virus infections of the central nervous system: encephalitis and meningitis, including Mollaret's. Herpes 2004; 11 (Suppl. 02) 57A-64A
  • 11 Solomon T, Hart IJ, Beeching NJ. Viral encephalitis: a clinician's guide. Pract Neurol 2007; 7 (5) 288-305
  • 12 Granerod J, Ambrose HE, Davies NW , et al; UK Health Protection Agency (HPA) Aetiology of Encephalitis Study Group. Causes of encephalitis and differences in their clinical presentations in England: a multicentre, population-based prospective study. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10 (12) 835-844
  • 13 Höftberger R, Armangue T, Leypoldt F, Graus F, Dalmau J. Clinical neuropathology practice guide 4-2013: post-herpes simplex encephalitis: N-methyl-D aspartate receptor antibodies are part of the problem. Clin Neuropathol 2013; 32 (4) 251-254
  • 14 De Tiège X, Rozenberg F, Des Portes V , et al. Herpes simplex encephalitis relapses in children: differentiation of two neurologic entities. Neurology 2003; 61 (2) 241-243
  • 15 de Bilbao F, Arsenijevic D, Moll T , et al. In vivo over-expression of interleukin-10 increases resistance to focal brain ischemia in mice. J Neurochem 2009; 110 (1) 12-22
  • 16 Campbell GL, Hills SL, Fischer M , et al. Estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ 2011; 89 (10) 766-774 , 774A–774E
  • 17 Griffiths MJ, Turtle L, Solomon T. Japanese encephalitis virus infection. Handb Clin Neurol 2014; 123: 561-576
  • 18 Impoinvil DE, Solomon T, Schluter WW , et al. The spatial heterogeneity between Japanese encephalitis incidence distribution and environmental variables in Nepal. PLoS ONE 2011; 6 (7) e22192
  • 19 Solomon T. New vaccines for Japanese encephalitis. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7 (2) 116-118
  • 20 Kumar R, Mathur A, Kumar A, Sharma S, Chakraborty S, Chaturvedi UC. Clinical features & prognostic indicators of Japanese encephalitis in children in Lucknow (India). Indian J Med Res 1990; 91: 321-327
  • 21 Solomon T, Dung NM, Kneen R , et al. Seizures and raised intracranial pressure in Vietnamese patients with Japanese encephalitis. Brain 2002; 125 (Pt 5) 1084-1093
  • 22 Kumar R, Mathur A, Singh KB , et al. Clinical sequelae of Japanese encephalitis in children. Indian J Med Res 1993; 97: 9-13
  • 23 Huy BV, Tu HC, Luan TV, Lindqvist R. Early mental and neurological sequelae after Japanese B encephalitis. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1994; 25 (3) 549-553
  • 24 Campadelli-Fiume G, Mirandola P, Menotti L. Human herpesvirus 6: An emerging pathogen. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5 (3) 353-366
  • 25 Hall CB, Long CE, Schnabel KC , et al. Human herpesvirus-6 infection in children. A prospective study of complications and reactivation. N Engl J Med 1994; 331 (7) 432-438
  • 26 Epstein LG, Shinnar S, Hesdorffer DC , et al; FEBSTAT study team. Human herpesvirus 6 and 7 in febrile status epilepticus: the FEBSTAT study. Epilepsia 2012; 53 (9) 1481-1488
  • 27 Studahl M, Hagberg L, Rekabdar E, Bergström T. Herpesvirus DNA detection in cerebral spinal fluid: differences in clinical presentation between alpha-, beta-, and gamma-herpesviruses. Scand J Infect Dis 2000; 32 (3) 237-248
  • 28 Li J-M, Lei D, Peng F , et al. Detection of human herpes virus 6B in patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy in West China and the possible association with elevated NF-κB expression. Epilepsy Res 2011; 94 (1-2) 1-9
  • 29 Fotheringham J, Donati D, Akhyani N , et al. Association of human herpesvirus-6B with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. PLoS Med 2007; 4 (5) e180
  • 30 Donati D, Akhyani N, Fogdell-Hahn A , et al. Detection of human herpesvirus-6 in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy surgical brain resections. Neurology 2003; 61 (10) 1405-1411
  • 31 Karatas H, Gurer G, Pinar A , et al. Investigation of HSV-1, HSV-2, CMV, HHV-6 and HHV-8 DNA by real-time PCR in surgical resection materials of epilepsy patients with mesial temporal lobe sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2008; 264 (1-2) 151-156
  • 32 Kamuyu G, Bottomley C, Mageto J , et al; Study of Epidemiology of Epilepsy in Demographic Sites (SEEDS) group. Exposure to multiple parasites is associated with the prevalence of active convulsive epilepsy in sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8 (5) e2908
  • 33 Postels DG, Birbeck GL. Cerebral malaria. Handb Clin Neurol 2013; 114: 91-102
  • 34 Severe falciparum malaria. World Health organization, communicable diseases cluster. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2000; 94 (Suppl. 01) S1-S90
  • 35 Lewallen S, Wills BA. Retinal haemorrhage in children with malaria. Lancet 1993; 341 (8842) 442
  • 36 Birbeck GL, Molyneux ME, Kaplan PW , et al. Blantyre Malaria Project Epilepsy Study (BMPES) of neurological outcomes in retinopathy-positive paediatric cerebral malaria survivors: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9 (12) 1173-1181
  • 37 Ngoungou EB, Poudiougou B, Dulac O , et al. [Persistent neurological sequelae due to cerebral malaria in a cohort of children from Mali]. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2007; 163 (5) 583-588
  • 38 Opoka RO, Bangirana P, Boivin MJ, John CC, Byarugaba J. Seizure activity and neurological sequelae in Ugandan children who have survived an episode of cerebral malaria. Afr Health Sci 2009; 9 (2) 75-81
  • 39 Potchen MJ, Birbeck GL, Demarco JK , et al. Neuroimaging findings in children with retinopathy-confirmed cerebral malaria. Eur J Radiol 2010; 74 (1) 262-268
  • 40 Schijns OE, Visser-Vandewalle V, Lemmens EM, Janssen A, Hoogland G. Surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy after cerebral malaria. Seizure 2008; 17 (8) 731-734
  • 41 Ogutu BR, Newton CR, Muchohi SN , et al. Pharmacokinetics and clinical effects of phenytoin and fosphenytoin in children with severe malaria and status epilepticus. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 56 (1) 112-119
  • 42 Del Brutto OH. Neurocysticercosis. Handb Clin Neurol 2014; 121: 1445-1459
  • 43 Ndimubanzi PC, Carabin H, Budke CM , et al. A systematic review of the frequency of neurocyticercosis with a focus on people with epilepsy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010; 4 (11) e870
  • 44 Medina MT, Aguilar-Estrada RL, Alvarez A , et al. Reduction in rate of epilepsy from neurocysticercosis by community interventions: the Salamá, Honduras study. Epilepsia 2011; 52 (6) 1177-1185
  • 45 Sotelo J, Diaz-Olavarrieta C. Neurocysticercosis: changes after 25 years of medical therapy. Arch Med Res 2010; 41 (1) 62-63
  • 46 Carabin H, Ndimubanzi PC, Budke CM , et al. Clinical manifestations associated with neurocysticercosis: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5 (5) e1152
  • 47 Nash TE, Pretell EJ, Lescano AG , et al; Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru. Perilesional brain oedema and seizure activity in patients with calcified neurocysticercosis: a prospective cohort and nested case-control study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7 (12) 1099-1105
  • 48 Bianchin MM, Velasco TR, Takayanagui OM, Sakamoto AC. Neurocysticercosis, mesial temporal lobe epilepsy, and hippocampal sclerosis: an association largely ignored. Lancet Neurol 2006; 5 (1) 20-21
  • 49 Pandey S, Rathore C, Michael BD. Antiepileptic drugs for the primary and secondary prevention of seizures in viral encephalitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 10: CD010247
  • 50 Crawley J, Waruiru C, Mithwani S , et al. Effect of phenobarbital on seizure frequency and mortality in childhood cerebral malaria: a randomised, controlled intervention study. Lancet 2000; 355 (9205) 701-706
  • 51 Sköldenberg B, Forsgren M, Alestig K , et al. Acyclovir versus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis. Randomised multicentre study in consecutive Swedish patients. Lancet 1984; 2 (8405) 707-711
  • 52 Whitley RJ, Alford CA, Hirsch MS , et al. Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis. N Engl J Med 1986; 314 (3) 144-149
  • 53 Dua T, Barbui C, Clark N , et al. Evidence-based guidelines for mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in low- and middle-income countries: summary of WHO recommendations. PLoS Med 2011; 8 (11) e1001122
  • 54 Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M , et al; SANAD Study group. The SANAD study of effectiveness of carbamazepine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, or topiramate for treatment of partial epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007; 369 (9566) 1000-1015
  • 55 Trinka E, Marson AG, Van Paesschen W , et al; KOMET Study Group. KOMET: an unblinded, randomised, two parallel-group, stratified trial comparing the effectiveness of levetiracetam with controlled-release carbamazepine and extended-release sodium valproate as monotherapy in patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013; 84 (10) 1138-1147
  • 56 Garcia HH, Del Brutto OH. Infection and inflammation. Handb Clin Neurol 2012; 108: 601-620