Download PDF
Int J Sports Med 2013; 34(06): 507-513
DOI: 10.1055/s-0032-1327573
Training & Testing
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Effects of Swim Training on Energetics and Performance

M. J. Costa
1   Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
,
J. A. Bragada
1   Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
,
J. E. Mejias
1   Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
,
H. Louro
2   Department of Sport Sciences, Sport Sciences School of Rio Maior, Rio Maior, Portugal
,
D. A. Marinho
3   Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
,
A. J. Silva
4   Exercise and Health Sciences Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Sports, Vila Real, Portugal
,
T. M. Barbosa
5   National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History



accepted after revision 25 August 2012

Publication Date:
23 November 2012 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of several months of training on performance and energetic profile of elite swimmers. 9 elite swimmers were evaluated at 3 different time periods during the 2010–2011 calendar. Swimming performance was assessed based on lists of times for the 200 m freestyle event. An incremental set of 7×200 m swims was applied to obtain the energetic data. Measurements and/or estimations were made for the: velocity at 4 mmol l − 1 of lactate concentrations, highest value of lactate concentrations, maximal oxygen consumption, minimum swimming velocity where the maximal oxygen consumption is reached and total energy expenditure (Etot). The performance and most of the energetic variables assessed presented no significant variations during the study period. The only exception was the Etot with significant differences between all measurements. Correlation coefficients suggested a high stability for all variables. Cohen’s Kappa tracking index demonstrated high variability in the individual adaptations to training. It is concluded that elite swimmers demonstrate a slight improvement in performance and energetic profile in response to several months of training. Each subject has an individual way of adapting to the training load, combining the different energetic confounders to enhance performance.

Key words

tracking - elite swimmers - testing - annual changes - swimming
 

  • References

  • 1 Anderson M, Hopkins W, Roberts A, Pyne D. Monitoring seasonal and long-term changes in test performance in elite swimmers. Eur J Sport Sci 2006; 6: 145-154
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Avlonitou E. Maximal lactate values following competitive performance varying according to age, sex, and swimming style. J Sports Med Phys Fit 1996; 36: 24-30
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Baldari C, Guidetti L. A simple method for individual anaerobic threshold as predictor of max lactate steady state. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1798-1802
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Barbosa TM, Keskinen KL, Fernandes R, Colaço P, Carmo C, Vilas-Boas JP. Relationships between energetic, stroke determinants, and velocity in butterfly. Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 841-846
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Barbosa TM, Fernandes R, Keskinen KL, Colaço P, Cardoso C, Silva J, Vilas-Boas JP. Evaluation of the energy expenditure in competitive swimming strokes. Int J Sports Med 2006; 27: 894-899
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Barbosa TM, Fernandes RJ, Keskinen KL, Vilas-Boas JP. The influence of stroke mechanics into energy cost of elite swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 103: 139-149
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Barbosa TM, Bragada JA, Reis VM, Marinho DA, Carvalho C, Silva AJ. Energetics and biomechanics as determining factors of swimming performance: updating the state of the art. J Sci Med Sport 2010; 13: 262-269
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Barbosa TM, Silva AJ, Reis A, Costa MJ, Garrido N, Policarpo F, Reis VM. Kinematical changes in swimming front crawl and breaststroke with the AquaTrainer® snorkel. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 109: 1155-1162
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Bonifazi M, Sardella F, Lupo C. Preparatory versus main competitions: differences in performances, lactate responses and pre-competition plasma cortisol concentrations in elite male swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 368-373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Costa MJ, Bragada JA, Mejias JE, Louro H, Marinho DA, Silva AJ, Barbosa TM. Tracking the performance, energetics and biomechanics of international versus national level swimmers during a competitive season. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012; 112: 811-820
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Costa MJ, Marinho DA, Bragada JA, Silva AJ, Barbosa TM. Stability of elite Freestyle performance from childhood to adulthood. J Sports Sci 2011; 29: 1183-1189
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirwan JP, Houmard JA, Mitchell JB, Thomas R, Park SH. Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and swimming performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 249-254
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Costill DL, Thomas R, Robergs RA, Pascoe D, Lambert C, Barr S, Fink WJ. Adaptations to swimming training: influence of training volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 371-377
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Davison R, Someren K, Jones A. Physiological monitoring of the Olympic athlete. J Sport Sci 2009; 27: 1433-1442
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 di Prampero PE, Pendergast D, Wilson D, Rennie DW. Blood lactic acid concentrations in high velocity swimming. In: Eriksson B, Furberg B. (eds.). Swimming medicine IV. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1978: 249-261
    Google Scholar
  • 16 Faude O, Meyer T, Scharhag J, Weins F, Urhausen A, Kindermann W. Volume vs. intensity in the training of competitive swimmers. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29: 906-912
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Faude O, Kindermann W, Meyer T. Lactate thresholds concepts. How valid are they?. Sports Med 2009; 39: 469-490
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Fernandes RJ, Cardoso CS, Soares SM, Ascensão A, Colaço PJ, Vilas-Boas JP. Time limit and VO2 slow component at intensities corresponding to VO2max in swimmers. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 576-581
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Fernandes RJ, Marinho DA, Barbosa TM, Vilas-Boas JP. Is time limit at the minimum swimming velocity of VO2 max influenced by stroking parameters?. Percept Mot Skills 2006; 103: 67-75
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Fernandes RJ, Billat VL, Cruz AC, Colaço PJ, Cardoso CS, Vilas-Boas JP. Does net energy cost of swimming affect time to exhaustion at the individual’s maximal oxygen consumption velocity?. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2006; 46: 373-380
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Fernandes RJ, Keskinen KL, Colaço P, Querido AJ, Machado LJ, Morais PA, Novais DQ, Marinho DA, Vilas Boas JP. Time limit at VO2max velocity in elite crawl swimmers. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29: 145-150
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Fernandes RJ, Sousa M, Machado L, Vilas-Boas JP. Step length and individual anaerobic threshold assessment in swimming. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 940-946
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Harriss DJ, Atkinson G. Update – ethical standards in sport and exercise science research. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 819-821
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Houston ME, Wilson DM, Green HJ, Thomson JA, Ranney DA. Physiological and muscle enzyme adaptations to two different intensities of swim training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1981; 46: 283-291
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Laffite LP, Vilas-Boas JP, Demarle A, Silva J, Fernandes R, Billat V. Changes in physiological and stroke parameters during a maximal 400-m free swimming test in elite swimmers. Can J Appl Physiol 2004; 29 (Suppl) S17-S31
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Landis J, Koch G. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics 1977; 33: 159-174
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Léger LA, Seliger V, Brassard L. Backward extrapolation of VO2 max from the O2 recovery curve. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1980; 12: 24-27
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Madsen O. Aerobic training: not so fast there. Swimming Tech 1983; 20: 13-17
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Magel JR, Foglia GF, McArdle WD, Gutin B, Pechar GS, Katch FI. Specificity of swim training on maximum oxygen uptake. J Appl Physiol 1975; 38: 151-155
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Malina RM. Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood: a perspective from tracking studies. Quest 2001; 53: 346-355
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Montpetit RR, Léger LA, Lavoie JM, Cazorla G. VO2 peak during free swimming using the backward extrapolation of the O2 recovery curve. Eur J Appl Physiol 1981; 47: 385-391
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Mujika I. The influence of training characteristics and tapering on the adaptation in highly trained individuals: a review. Int J Sports Med 1998; 19: 439-446
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Pyne DB, Lee H, Swanwick KM. Monitoring the lactate threshold in world ranked swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 291-297
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Ryan R, Coyle E, Quick R. Blood lactate profile throughout a training season in elite female swimmers. J Swim Res 1990; 6: 5-9
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Sharp R, Vitelli C, Costill D, Thomas R. Comparison between blood lactate and heart rate profiles during a season of competitive swim training. J Swim Res 1984; 1: 17-20
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Sousa AC, Figueiredo P, Oliveira NL, Oliveira J, Silva AJ, Keskinen KL, Rodríguez FA, Machado LJ, Vilas-Boas JP, Fernandes RJ. VO2 kinetics in 200-m race-pace front crawl swimming. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 765-770
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Termin B, Pendergast D. Training using the stroke-frequency velocity relationship to combine biomechanical and metabolic paradigms. J Swim Res 2000; 14: 9-17
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Toussaint HM, Hollander AP. Energetics of competitive swimming. Implications for training programmes. Sports Med 1994; 18: 384-405
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Trewin CB, Hopkins WG, Pyne DB. Relationship between world ranking and Olympic performance in swimmers. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 339-345
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Wakayoshi K, Yoshida T, Ikuta Y, Mutoh Y, Myashita M. Adaptations to six months of aerobic swim training: Changes in velocity, stroke rate, stroke length and blood lactate. Int J Sports Med 1993; 14: 368-372
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Zamparo P, Capelli C, Pendergast D. Energetics of swimming: a historical perspective. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 111: 367-378
    PubMedGoogle Scholar