Hand and forearm immersion in hot water at half-time enhances subsequent leg muscle strength

Abstract

We aimed to investigate the effects of hot-water immersion of the hand and forearm during half-time (HT) on the physiological responses, leg muscle strength, and cycling sprint performance in the cold. Ten recreationally active men performed the experimental trials that consisted of 40 min intermittent cycling, followed by a 15-min HT, and then an intermittent cycling sprint test in a cold (5°C and 50% relative humidity). During HT, the participants underwent two different interventions: seated rest (CON) or hand and forearm heating (HEAT). The intermittent cycling sprint test comprised 10 sets of 5 s of maximal pedaling and 25 s of recovery. In addition, the participants performed maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) in knee extension before and after HT. Although the peak power output in the intermittent cycling sprint test did not significantly differ between trials (p>0.05), the rectal temperature (T_re) following HT in HEAT was significantly higher than in CON (p=0.026). In addition, the MVC force after HT was significantly higher in HEAT than in CON (p<0.001). This suggests hot-water immersion of hand and forearm during HT improves knee extensor muscle strength and attenuates the T_re decrease in a cold environment.

Key word

core temperature - muscle strength - half-time - recorvery - passive heat Maintenance

Publication History

Received: 18 September 2024

Accepted: 19 April 2025

Article published online:
10 October 2025

• References

• 1 Chmura P, Konefał M, Chmura J. et al. Match outcome and running performance in different intensity ranges among elite soccer players. Biol Sport 2018; 35: 197-203
• 2 Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Fatigue in soccer: A brief review. J Sports Sci 2005; 23: 593-599
• 3 Bradley PS, Sheldon W, Wooster B. et al. High-intensity running in English FA Premier League soccer matches. J Sports Sci 2009; 27: 159-168
• 4 Mohr M, Krustrup P, Nybo L. et al. Muscle temperature and sprint performance during soccer matches – Beneficial effect of re-warm-up at half-time. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2004; 14: 156-162
• 5 Yanaoka T, Hamada Y, Fujihira K. et al. High-intensity cycling re-warm up within a very short time-frame increases the subsequent intermittent sprint performance. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 20: 1307-1317
• 6 Yanaoka T, Iwata R, Yoshimura A. et al. A 1-minute re-warm up at high-intensity improves sprint performance during the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. Front Physiol 2021; 11: 1745-1745
• 7 Russell M, West DJ, Briggs MA. et al. A passive heat maintenance strategy implemented during a simulated half-time improves lower body power output and repeated sprint ability in professional Rugby Union players. PLoS One 2015; 10: 1-10
• 8 Russell M, West DJ, Harper LD. et al. Half-time strategies to enhance second-half performance in team-sports players: A review and recommendations. Sports Med 2015; 45: 353-364
• 9 Towlson C, Midgley AW, Lovell R. Warm-up strategies of professional soccer players: Practitioners' perspectives. J Sports Sci 2013; 31: 1393-1401
• 10 Kilduff LP, West DJ, Williams N. et al. The influence of passive heat maintenance on lower body power output and repeated sprint performance in professional rugby league players. J Sci Med Sport 2013; 16: 482-486
• 11 Cowper G, Barwood M, Goodall S. Improved 2000-m rowing performance in a cool environment with an external heating garment. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16: 103-109
• 12 Rodrigues P, Trajano GS, Stewart IB. et al. Potential role of passively increased muscle temperature on contractile function. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122: 2153-2162
• 13 Rodrigues P, Orssatto LBR, Trajano GS. et al. Increases in muscle temperature by hot water improve muscle contractile function and reduce motor unit discharge rates. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33: 754-765
• 14 Vanggaard L, Kuklane K, Holmer I. et al. Thermal responses to whole-body cooling in air with special reference to arteriovenous anastomoses in fingers. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2012; 32: 463-469
• 15 Tipton MJ, Allsopp A, Balmi PJ, House JR. Hand immersion as a method of cooling and rewarming: A short review. J R Nav Med Serv 1993; 79: 125-131
• 16 Iwahashi M, Chaen Y, Yanaoka T. et al. Cold water immersion of the hand and forearm during half-time improves intermittent exercise performance in the heat. Front Physiol 2023; 14: 1143447
• 17 Nakamura D, Muraishi K, Hasegawa H. et al. Effect of a cooling strategy combining forearm water immersion and a low dose of ice slurry ingestion on physiological response and subsequent exercise performance in the heat. J Therm Biol 2020; 89: 102530-102530
• 18 Yamashita Y, Umemura Y. Effect of high-intensity with short-duration re-warm-up on subsequent performance in a cold environment. J Stregth Cond Res 2024; 38: e280-e287
• 19 Stanley J, Leveritt M, Peake JM. Thermoregulatory responses to ice-slush beverage ingestion and exercise in the heat. Eur J App Physiol 2010; 110: 1163-1173
• 20 Yanaoka T, Hamada Y, Kashiwabara K. et al. Very-short-duration, low-intensity half-time re–warm up increases subsequent intermittent sprint performance. J Stregth Cond Res 2018; 32: 3258-3266
• 21 Ohya T, Aramaki Y, Kitagawa K. Effect of duration of active or passive recovery on performance and muscle oxygenation during intermittent sprint cycling exercise. Int J Sports Med 2013; 34: 616-622
• 22 Ohya T, Hagiwara M, Suzuki Y. Inspiratory muscle warm-up has no impact on performance or locomotor muscle oxygenation during high-intensity intermittent sprint cycling exercise. Springerplus 2015; 4: 556
• 23 Roberts MF, Wenger CB, Stolwijk JA, Nadel ER. Skin blood flow and sweating changes following exercise training and heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1977; 43: 133-137
• 24 Wakabayashi H, Wijayanto T, Tochihara Y. Neuromuscular function during knee extension exercise after cold water immersion. J Physiol Anthropol 2017; 36: 1-8
• 25 Borg GAV. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14: 377-381
• 26 Kashimura O. Changes in thermal sensation during endurance exercise. Japanese Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine 1986; 35: 264-269
• 27 Russell M, Tucker R, Cook CJ. et al. A comparison of different heat maintenance methods implemented during a simulated half-time period in professional Rugby Union players. J Sci Med Sport 2018; 21: 327-332
• 28 Sautillet B, Bourdillon N, Millet GP. et al. Hot water immersion: Maintaining core body temperature above 38.5 degrees C mitigates muscle fatigue. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34: e14503 Epub 2023 Sep 25
• 29 Glaister M. Multiple sprint work physiological responses, mechanisms of fatigue and the influence of aerobic fitness. Sports Med 2005; 35: 757-777
• 30 Rahnama N, Reilly T, Lees A. Injury risk associated with playing actions during competitive soccer. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36: 354-359
• 31 Rahnama N, Reilly T, Lees A. et al. Muscle fatigue induced by exercise simulating the work rate of competitive soccer. J Sports Sci 2003; 21: 933-942
• 32 Woods K, Bishop P, Jones E. Warm-up and stretching in the prevention of muscular injury. Sports Med 2007; 37: 1089-1099
• 33 McGowan CJ, Pyne DB, Thompson KG. et al. Warm-up strategies for sport and exercise: Mechanisms and applications. Sports Med 2015; 45: 1523-1546
• 34 Sargeant AJ. Effect of muscle temperature on leg extension force and short-term power output in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1987; 56: 693-698
• 35 Bergh U, Ekblom B. Influence of muscle temperature on maximal muscle strength and power output in human skeletal muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 1979; 107: 33-37
• 36 Hall JE. Cardiac arrhythmias and their electrocardiographic interpretation. In: Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. London: WB Saunders; 2010: 47-157
• 37 Gagge AP, Stolwijk JA, Saltin B. Comfort and thermal sensations and associated physiological responses during exercise at various ambient temperatures. Environ Res 1969; 2: 209-229