Ursachen der chronischen Nierenschädigung in Patienten mit Lebererkrankungen – Pathophysiologie und Therapiemöglichkeiten

Zusammenfassung

Eine akute oder chronische Nierenschädigung bei gleichzeitig bestehender Lebererkrankung stellt ein häufiges Problem dar und geht im weiteren klinischen Verlauf mit zahlreichen Komplikationen sowie einer gesteigerten Dialysepflichtigkeit und Mortalität einher.

Die Prävalenz einer chronischen Niereninsuffizienz (CNI) bei Patienten mit Lebererkrankungen ist hoch, nicht zuletzt wegen parallel bestehender Komorbiditäten (z. B. metabolisches Syndrom, chronische Entzündungsprozesse, Hyperkoagulabilität, Hyperfibrinolyse, Diabetes mellitus, Dyslipidämie usw.). Doch nicht jede chronische Verschlechterung der Nierenretentionsparameter lässt sich auf ein hepatorenales Syndrom zurückführen. Neben diesem sind die häufigsten Ursachen der CNI bei bestehenden Lebererkrankungen die diabetische Nephropathie, die alkoholassoziierte IgA-Nephropathie, die mit Hepatitis C assoziierte membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis und die mit Hepatitis B assoziierte membranöse Glomerulonephritis.

Koexistente Erkrankungen, ähnlich bzw. parallel ablaufende pathophysiologische Mechanismen und überlappende Erscheinungsbilder stellen hinsichtlich der Ursachenfindung und entsprechenden Behandlung der CNI im Rahmen einer existenten Lebererkrankung eine Herausforderung an den Kliniker dar. Diese Übersichtsarbeit skizziert sowohl häufige als auch seltene Entitäten, die zu einer chronischen Nierenschädigung in diesem speziellen Patientenkollektiv führen, und zeigt einen Überblick zu therapeutischen Möglichkeiten.

Abstract

Acute and chronic kidney disease concurs commonly with liver disease and is associated with a wide array of complications including dialysis dependency and increased mortality. Patients with liver disease or liver cirrhosis show a higher prevalence of chronic kidney disease. This is attributed to concomitant comorbidities, such as metabolic syndrome, chronic inflammation, hypercoagulability, hyperfibrinolysis, diabetes mellitus and dyslipidaemias. But chronic progressive kidney disease is not always due to hepatorenal syndrome. Beyond that, other diseases or disease entities should be considered. Among them are diabetic nephropathy, secondary IgA nephropathy, hepatitis C -associated membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) and hepatitis B-associated membranous nephropathy.

Coexisting diseases, similar underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms, or simultaneously concurring pathophysiological processes and overlapping clinical manifestations, impede the etiologic diagnosis and corresponding treatment of chronic kidney disease in the setting of chronic liver disease. In this review, we focus on common and rare pathologies, which can lead to chronic kidney disease in this particular patient group and try to summarize the most recent therapeutic modalities.

Schlüsselwörter

Leberinsuffizienz - Leberzirrhose - Nierenschädigung - chronische Niereninsuffizienz - hepatorenales Syndrom - HRS - Hepatitis B - Hepatitis C - Diabetes mellitus - Pathophysiologie - Nierenbiopsie

Key words

liver insufficiency - liver cirrhosis - kidney injury - chronic renal insufficiency - hepatorenal syndrome - HRS - hepatitis B - hepatitis C - diabetes mellitus - pathophysiology - kidney biopsy

Publication History

Received: 21 January 2021

Accepted: 24 February 2021

Article published online:
16 March 2021

• Literatur

• 1 Slack A, Yeoman A, Wendon J. Renal Dysfunction in Chronic Liver Disease. New York, NY: Springer New York; 2010: 349-364
• 2 Targher G, Chonchol MB, Byrne CD. CKD and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2014; 64: 638-652 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.05.019.
• 3 Bonora E, Targher G. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease in NAFLD. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 9: 372-381 DOI: 10.1038/nrgastro.2012.79.
• 4 Lum EL, Homkrailas P, Bunnapradist S. Evaluation of Renal Disease in Patients With Cirrhosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2020; 54: 314-321 DOI: 10.1097/MCG.0000000000001325.
• 5 Arase Y, Suzuki F, Kobayashi M. et al The development of chronic kidney disease in Japanese patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Intern Med 2011; 50: 1081-1087 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.50.5043.
• 6 Targher G, Mantovani A, Pichiri I. et al Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is independently associated with an increased incidence of chronic kidney disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2014; 37: 1729-1736 DOI: 10.2337/dc13-2704.
• 7 Wong F, Reddy KR, O'Leary JG. et al Impact of Chronic Kidney Disease on Outcomes in Cirrhosis. Liver Transpl 2019; 25: 870-880 DOI: 10.1002/lt.25454.
• 8 Velez JCQ, Therapondos G, Juncos LA. Reappraising the spectrum of AKI and hepatorenal syndrome in patients with cirrhosis. Nat Rev Nephrol 2020; 16: 137-155 DOI: 10.1038/s41581-019-0218-4.
• 9 Mazzolini G, Sowa JP, Atorrasagasti C. et al Significance of Simple Steatosis: An Update on the Clinical and Molecular Evidence. Cells 2020; 9 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112458.
• 10 Stefan N. [New aspects of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis]. Internist (Berl) 2019; 60: 128-132 DOI: 10.1007/s00108-018-0550-y.
• 11 Adams LA, Anstee QM, Tilg H. et al Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and its relationship with cardiovascular disease and other extrahepatic diseases. Gut 2017; 66: 1138-1153 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2017-313884.
• 12 Tolman KG, Fonseca V, Dalpiaz A. et al Spectrum of liver disease in type 2 diabetes and management of patients with diabetes and liver disease. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 734-743 DOI: 10.2337/dc06-1539.
• 13 Wlazlo N, Beijers HJ, Schoon EJ. et al High prevalence of diabetes mellitus in patients with liver cirrhosis. Diabet Med 2010; 27: 1308-1311 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2010.03093.x.
• 14 Grancini V, Trombetta M, Lunati ME. et al Contribution of beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance to cirrhosis-associated diabetes: Role of severity of liver disease. J Hepatol 2015; 63: 1484-1490 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.08.011.
• 15 Targher G, Bertolini L, Rodella S. et al Relationship between kidney function and liver histology in subjects with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010; 5: 2166-2171 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.05050610.
• 16 Greco AV, Mingrone G, Mari A. et al Mechanisms of hyperinsulinaemia in Child's disease grade B liver cirrhosis investigated in free living conditions. Gut 2002; 51: 870-875 DOI: 10.1136/gut.51.6.870.
• 17 Shanik MH, Xu Y, Skrha J. et al Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia: is hyperinsulinemia the cart or the horse?. Diabetes Care 2008; 31 (Suppl. 02) S262-S268 DOI: 10.2337/dc08-s264.
• 18 Saitoh M. [Studies on histopathology of pancreas in portal hypertension]. Nihon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi 1984; 81: 1444-1452
• 19 Gariani K, Philippe J, Jornayvaz FR. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and insulin resistance: from bench to bedside. Diabetes Metab 2013; 39: 16-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabet.2012.11.002.
• 20 Lecube A, Hernandez C, Genesca J. et al Proinflammatory cytokines, insulin resistance, and insulin secretion in chronic hepatitis C patients: A case-control study. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 1096-1101 DOI: 10.2337/diacare.2951096.
• 21 Bose SK, Shrivastava S, Meyer K. et al Hepatitis C virus activates the mTOR/S6K1 signaling pathway in inhibiting IRS-1 function for insulin resistance. J Virol 2012; 86: 6315-6322 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.00050-12.
• 22 Drucker DJ, Nauck MA. The incretin system: glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2006; 368: 1696-1705 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69705-5.
• 23 Balaban YH, Korkusuz P, Simsek H. et al Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DDP IV) in NASH patients. Ann Hepatol 2007; 6: 242-250
• 24 Itou M, Kawaguchi T, Taniguchi E. et al Dipeptidyl peptidase-4: a key player in chronic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2013; 19: 2298-2306 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v19.i15.2298.
• 25 Yagmur E, Tacke F, Weiss C. et al Elevation of Nepsilon-(carboxymethyl)lysine-modified advanced glycation end products in chronic liver disease is an indicator of liver cirrhosis. Clin Biochem 2006; 39: 39-45 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2005.07.016.
• 26 Sebekova K, Kupcova V, Schinzel R. et al Markedly elevated levels of plasma advanced glycation end products in patients with liver cirrhosis – amelioration by liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2002; 36: 66-71 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-8278(01)00232-x.
• 27 Vlassara H, Uribarri J. Advanced glycation end products (AGE) and diabetes: cause, effect, or both?. Curr Diab Rep 2014; 14: 453 DOI: 10.1007/s11892-013-0453-1.
• 28 Christen V, Treves S, Duong FH. et al Activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress response by hepatitis viruses up-regulates protein phosphatase 2A. Hepatology 2007; 46: 558-565 DOI: 10.1002/hep.21611.
• 29 Orsi E, Grancini V, Menini S. et al Hepatogenous diabetes: Is it time to separate it from type 2 diabetes?. Liver Int 2017; 37: 950-962 DOI: 10.1111/liv.13337.
• 30 Rahier J, Loozen S, Goebbels RM. et al The haemochromatotic human pancreas: a quantitative immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study. Diabetologia 1987; 30: 5-12 DOI: 10.1007/BF01788899.
• 31 Tang SC. Diabetic nephropathy: a global and growing threat. Hong Kong Med J 2010; 16: 244-245
• 32 Espinel E, Agraz I, Ibernon M. et al Renal Biopsy in Type 2 Diabetic Patients. J Clin Med 2015; 4: 998-1009 DOI: 10.3390/jcm4050998.
• 33 Krolewski AS. Progressive renal decline: the new paradigm of diabetic nephropathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015; 38: 954-962 DOI: 10.2337/dc15-0184.
• 34 Imano E, Nishida T, Shibata M. et al Significance of oral glucose tolerance test for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in patients with liver cirrhosis. Intern Med 1999; 38: 918 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.38.918.
• 35 Lahousen T, Hegenbarth K, Ille R. et al Determination of glycated hemoglobin in patients with advanced liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10: 2284-2286 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v10.i15.2284.
• 36 Nishida T, Tsuji S, Tsujii M. et al Oral glucose tolerance test predicts prognosis of patients with liver cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 70-75 DOI: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.00307.x.
• 37 Nishida T. Diagnosis and Clinical Implications of Diabetes in Liver Cirrhosis: A Focus on the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test. J Endocr Soc 2017; 1: 886-896 DOI: 10.1210/js.2017-00183.
• 38 Ranjbar G, Mikhailidis DP, Sahebkar A. Effects of newer antidiabetic drugs on nonalcoholic fatty liver and steatohepatitis: Think out of the box!. Metabolism 2019; 101: 154001 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2019.154001.
• 39 Tacelli M, Celsa C, Magro B. et al Antidiabetic Drugs in NAFLD: The Accomplishment of Two Goals at Once?. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2018; 11 DOI: 10.3390/ph11040121.
• 40 Peter PR, Lupsa BC. Personalized Management of Type 2 Diabetes. Curr Diab Rep 2019; 19: 115 DOI: 10.1007/s11892-019-1244-0.
• 41 Schubert M, Hansen S, Leefmann J. et al Repurposing Antidiabetic Drugs for Cardiovascular Disease. Front Physiol 2020; 11: 568632 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.568632.
• 42 Sumida Y, Yoneda M, Tokushige K. et al Antidiabetic Therapy in the Treatment of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21061907.
• 43 Grancini V, Resi V, Palmieri E. et al Management of diabetes mellitus in patients undergoing liver transplantation. Pharmacol Res 2019; 141: 556-573 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.01.042.
• 44 Kumar R. Hepatogenous Diabetes: An Underestimated Problem of Liver Cirrhosis. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2018; 22: 552-559 DOI: 10.4103/ijem.IJEM_79_18.
• 45 Heerspink HJL, Stefansson BV, Correa-Rotter R. et al Dapagliflozin in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease. N Engl J Med 2020; 383: 1436-1446 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2024816.
• 46 McMurray JJV, Docherty KF, Jhund PS. Dapagliflozin in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction. Reply. N Engl J Med 2020; 382: 973 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc1917241.
• 47 Packer M, Anker SD, Butler J. et al Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Empagliflozin in Heart Failure. N Engl J Med 2020; 383: 1413-1424 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2022190.
• 48 Perkovic V, Jardine MJ, Neal B. et al Canagliflozin and Renal Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2019; 380: 2295-2306 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1811744.
• 49 Wiviott SD, Raz I, Bonaca MP. et al Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med 2019; 380: 347-357 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1812389.
• 50 Bakris G, Oshima M, Mahaffey KW. et al Effects of Canagliflozin in Patients with Baseline eGFR <30 ml/min per 1.73 m(2): Subgroup Analysis of the Randomized CREDENCE Trial. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2020; 15: 1705-1714 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.10140620.
• 51 Chalasani N, Younossi Z, Lavine JE. et al The diagnosis and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Practice guidance from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology 2018; 67: 328-357 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29367.
• 52 Estes C, Anstee QM, Arias-Loste MT. et al Modeling NAFLD disease burden in China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, United Kingdom, and United States for the period 2016-2030. J Hepatol 2018; 69: 896-904 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2018.05.036.
• 53 Musso G, Gambino R, Tabibian JH. et al Association of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2014; 11: e1001680 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001680.
• 54 European Association for the Study of the L, European Association for the Study of D, European Association for the Study of O. EASL-EASD-EASO Clinical Practice Guidelines for the management of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Diabetologia 2016; 59: 1121-1140 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-016-3902-y.
• 55 Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Study G, Lonardo A, Bellentani S et al. Epidemiological modifiers of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Focus on high-risk groups. Dig Liver Dis 2015; 47: 997-1006 DOI: 10.1016/j.dld.2015.08.004.
• 56 Younossi Z, Anstee QM, Marietti M. et al Global burden of NAFLD and NASH: trends, predictions, risk factors and prevention. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 15: 11-20 DOI: 10.1038/nrgastro.2017.109.
• 57 Kendrick J, Chonchol MB. Nontraditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2008; 4: 672-681 DOI: 10.1038/ncpneph0954.
• 58 Kronenberg F. Emerging risk factors and markers of chronic kidney disease progression. Nat Rev Nephrol 2009; 5: 677-689 DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2009.173.
• 59 Targher G, Chonchol M, Miele L. et al Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease as a contributor to hypercoagulation and thrombophilia in the metabolic syndrome. Semin Thromb Hemost 2009; 35: 277-287 DOI: 10.1055/s-0029-1222606.
• 60 Targher G, Byrne CD. Diagnosis and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and its hemostatic/thrombotic and vascular complications. Semin Thromb Hemost 2013; 39: 214-228 DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1334866.
• 61 Byrne CD, Targher G. NAFLD as a driver of chronic kidney disease. J Hepatol 2020; 72: 785-801 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2020.01.013.
• 62 Musso G, Cassader M, Cohney S. et al Emerging Liver-Kidney Interactions in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Trends Mol Med 2015; 21: 645-662 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2015.08.005.
• 63 Lanaspa MA, Cicerchi C, Garcia G. et al Counteracting roles of AMP deaminase and AMP kinase in the development of fatty liver. PLoS One 2012; 7: e48801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048801.
• 64 Lanaspa MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Choi YJ. et al Uric acid induces hepatic steatosis by generation of mitochondrial oxidative stress: potential role in fructose-dependent and -independent fatty liver. J Biol Chem 2012; 287: 40732-40744 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M112.399899.
• 65 Sanchez-Lozada LG, Andres-Hernando A, Garcia-Arroyo FE. et al Uric acid activates aldose reductase and the polyol pathway for endogenous fructose and fat production causing development of fatty liver in rats. J Biol Chem 2019; 294: 4272-4281 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.RA118.006158.
• 66 Anstee QM, Seth D, Day CP. Genetic Factors That Affect Risk of Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Gastroenterology 2016; 150: 1728-1744 e1727 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2016.01.037.
• 67 Eslam M, Valenti L, Romeo S. Genetics and epigenetics of NAFLD and NASH: Clinical impact. J Hepatol 2018; 68: 268-279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.09.003.
• 68 Oniki K, Saruwatari J, Izuka T. et al Influence of the PNPLA3 rs738409 Polymorphism on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Renal Function among Normal Weight Subjects. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0132640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132640.
• 69 Musso G, Cassader M, Gambino R. PNPLA3 rs738409 and TM6SF2 rs58542926 gene variants affect renal disease and function in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2015; 62: 658-659 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27643.
• 70 Mantovani A, Zusi C, Sani E. et al Association between PNPLA3rs738409 polymorphism decreased kidney function in postmenopausal type 2 diabetic women with or without non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Diabetes Metab 2019; 45: 480-487 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabet.2019.01.011.
• 71 Sun DQ, Zheng KI, Xu G. et al PNPLA3 rs738409 is associated with renal glomerular and tubular injury in NAFLD patients with persistently normal ALT levels. Liver Int 2020; 40: 107-119 DOI: 10.1111/liv.14251.
• 72 Targher G, Mantovani A, Alisi A. et al Relationship Between PNPLA3 rs738409 Polymorphism and Decreased Kidney Function in Children With NAFLD. Hepatology 2019; 70: 142-153 DOI: 10.1002/hep.30625.
• 73 Marzuillo P, Di Sessa A, Guarino S. et al Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and eGFR levels could be linked by the PNPLA3 I148M polymorphism in children with obesity. Pediatr Obes 2019; 14: e12539 DOI: 10.1111/ijpo.12539.
• 74 Shen B, Lu LG. Efficacy and safety of drugs for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. J Dig Dis 2021; DOI: 10.1111/1751-2980.12967.
• 75 Vilar-Gomez E, Calzadilla-Bertot L, Friedman SL. et al Improvement in liver histology due to lifestyle modification is independently associated with improved kidney function in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 45: 332-344 DOI: 10.1111/apt.13860.
• 76 Saha MK, Julian BA, Novak J. et al Secondary IgA nephropathy. Kidney Int 2018; 94: 674-681 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2018.02.030.
• 77 Seikrit C, Rauen T, Floege J. [Immunoglobulin A nephropathy]. Internist (Berl) 2019; 60: 432-439 DOI: 10.1007/s00108-019-0588-5.
• 78 Axelsen RA, Crawford DH, Endre ZH. et al Renal glomerular lesions in unselected patients with cirrhosis undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation. Pathology 1995; 27: 237-246 DOI: 10.1080/00313029500169053.
• 79 McGuire BM, Julian BA, Bynon Jr JS. et al Brief communication: Glomerulonephritis in patients with hepatitis C cirrhosis undergoing liver transplantation. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144: 735-741 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-144-10-200605160-00007.
• 80 Calmus Y, Conti F, Cluzel P. et al Prospective assessment of renal histopathological lesions in patients with end-stage liver disease: effects on long-term renal function after liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2012; 57: 572-576 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2012.04.028.
• 81 Hommos MS, El-Zoghby ZM. Renal Outcomes in Patients With IgA Nephropathy Undergoing Liver Transplant: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Transplant Direct 2017; 3: e193 DOI: 10.1097/TXD.0000000000000708.
• 82 Suzuki H, Kiryluk K, Novak J. et al The pathophysiology of IgA nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 22: 1795-1803 DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2011050464.
• 83 Tissandie E, Morelle W, Berthelot L. et al Both IgA nephropathy and alcoholic cirrhosis feature abnormally glycosylated IgA1 and soluble CD89-IgA and IgG-IgA complexes: common mechanisms for distinct diseases. Kidney Int 2011; 80: 1352-1363 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2011.276.
• 84 Scurt FG, Bose K, Canbay A. et al [Paradigm shift in understanding Acute kidney injury in patients with chronic liver disease: From pathophysiology to defining disease entities]. Z Gastroenterol 2020; 58: 254-266 DOI: 10.1055/a-1088-1582.
• 85 Francoz C, Durand F, Kahn JA. et al Hepatorenal Syndrome. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2019; 14: 774-781 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.12451018.
• 86 Singhal J, Sharma J. IgA nephropathy secondary to liver disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2018; 33: 2393 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-018-4051-y.
• 87 Deviere J, Content J, Denys C. et al Immunoglobulin A and interleukin 6 form a positive secretory feedback loop: a study of normal subjects and alcoholic cirrhotics. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 1296-1301 DOI: 10.1016/0016-5085(92)91519-a.
• 88 Pouria S, Barratt J. Secondary IgA nephropathy. Semin Nephrol 2008; 28: 27-37 DOI: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2007.10.004.
• 89 Rauen T, Eitner F, Fitzner C. et al Intensive Supportive Care plus Immunosuppression in IgA Nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 2225-2236 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1415463.
• 90 Liu LJ, Yang YZ, Shi SF. et al Effects of Hydroxychloroquine on Proteinuria in IgA Nephropathy: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2019; 74: 15-22 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2019.01.026.
• 91 Floege J, Feehally J. Treatment of IgA nephropathy and Henoch-Schonlein nephritis. Nat Rev Nephrol 2013; 9: 320-327 DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2013.59.
• 92 Frisch G, Lin J, Rosenstock J. et al Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) vs placebo in patients with moderately advanced IgA nephropathy: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005; 20: 2139-2145 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfh974.
• 93 Lafayette RA, Canetta PA, Rovin BH. et al A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Rituximab in IgA Nephropathy with Proteinuria and Renal Dysfunction. J Am Soc Nephrol 2017; 28: 1306-1313 DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2016060640.
• 94 Pozzi C, Andrulli S, Pani A. et al Addition of azathioprine to corticosteroids does not benefit patients with IgA nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010; 21: 1783-1790 DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2010010117.
• 95 Sarcina C, Tinelli C, Ferrario F. et al Changes in Proteinuria and Side Effects of Corticosteroids Alone or in Combination with Azathioprine at Different Stages of IgA Nephropathy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2016; 11: 973-981 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.02300215.
• 96 Lv J, Zhang H, Wong MG. et al Effect of Oral Methylprednisolone on Clinical Outcomes in Patients With IgA Nephropathy: The TESTING Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA 2017; 318: 432-442 DOI: 10.1001/jama.2017.9362.
• 97 Pozzi C. Pro: STOP immunosuppression in IgA nephropathy?. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2016; 31: 1766-1770 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfw285.
• 98 Tesar V, Troyanov S, Bellur S. et al Corticosteroids in IgA Nephropathy: A Retrospective Analysis from the VALIGA Study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015; 26: 2248-2258 DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2014070697.
• 99 Pozzi C, Andrulli S, Del Vecchio L. et al Corticosteroid effectiveness in IgA nephropathy: long-term results of a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15: 157-163 DOI: 10.1097/01.asn.0000103869.08096.4f.
• 100 Manno C, Torres DD, Rossini M. et al Randomized controlled clinical trial of corticosteroids plus ACE-inhibitors with long-term follow-up in proteinuric IgA nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009; 24: 3694-3701 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfp356.
• 101 Smerud HK, Barany P, Lindstrom K. et al New treatment for IgA nephropathy: enteric budesonide targeted to the ileocecal region ameliorates proteinuria. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011; 26: 3237-3242 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfr052.
• 102 Fellstrom BC, Barratt J, Cook H. et al Targeted-release budesonide versus placebo in patients with IgA nephropathy (NEFIGAN): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 2b trial. Lancet 2017; 389: 2117-2127 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30550-0.
• 103 Ismail G, Obrisca B, Jurubita R. et al Budesonide versus systemic corticosteroids in IgA Nephropathy: A retrospective, propensity-matched comparison. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020; 99: e21000 DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000021000.
• 104 Vierling JM, Kerkar N, Czaja AJ. et al Immunosuppressive Treatment Regimens in Autoimmune Hepatitis: Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Supporting AASLD Guidelines. Hepatology 2020; DOI: 10.1002/hep.31407.
• 105 Doycheva I, Watt KD, Gulamhusein AF. Autoimmune hepatitis: Current and future therapeutic options. Liver Int 2019; 39: 1002-1013 DOI: 10.1111/liv.14062.
• 106 Sallustio F, Curci C, Di Leo V. et al A New Vision of IgA Nephropathy: The Missing Link. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010189.
• 107 Bhimma R, Coovadia HM. Hepatitis B virus-associated nephropathy. Am J Nephrol 2004; 24: 198-211 DOI: 10.1159/000077065.
• 108 Kupin WL. Viral-Associated GN: Hepatitis B and Other Viral Infections. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2017; 12: 1529-1533 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.09180816.
• 109 Pipili CL, Papatheodoridis GV, Cholongitas EC. Treatment of hepatitis B in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2013; 84: 880-885 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2013.249.
• 110 Johnson RJ, Couser WG. Hepatitis B infection and renal disease: clinical, immunopathogenetic and therapeutic considerations. Kidney Int 1990; 37: 663-676 DOI: 10.1038/ki.1990.32.
• 111 Lai KN, Li PK, Lui SF. et al Membranous nephropathy related to hepatitis B virus in adults. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1457-1463 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199105233242103.
• 112 Li P, Wei RB, Tang L. et al Clinical and pathological analysis of hepatitis B virus-related membranous nephropathy and idiopathic membranous nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 2012; 78: 456-464 DOI: 10.5414/cn107615.
• 113 Fervenza FC, Sethi S, Specks U. Idiopathic membranous nephropathy: diagnosis and treatment. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 3: 905-919 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.04321007.
• 114 He XY, Fang LJ, Zhang YE. et al In situ hybridization of hepatitis B DNA in hepatitis B-associated glomerulonephritis. Pediatr Nephrol 1998; 12: 117-120 DOI: 10.1007/s004670050417.
• 115 Xie Q, Li Y, Xue J. et al Renal phospholipase A2 receptor in hepatitis B virus-associated membranous nephropathy. Am J Nephrol 2015; 41: 345-353 DOI: 10.1159/000431331.
• 116 Lin CY. Treatment of hepatitis B virus-associated membranous nephropathy with recombinant alpha-interferon. Kidney Int 1995; 47: 225-230 DOI: 10.1038/ki.1995.27.
• 117 Yang Y, Ma YP, Chen DP. et al A Meta-Analysis of Antiviral Therapy for Hepatitis B Virus-Associated Membranous Nephropathy. PLoS One 2016; 11: e0160437 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160437.
• 118 Mahajan V, D'Cruz S, Nada R. et al Successful Use of Entecavir in Hepatitis B-associated Membranous Nephropathy. J Trop Pediatr 2018; 64: 249-252 DOI: 10.1093/tropej/fmx058.
• 119 Jung WJ, Jang JY, Park WY. et al Effect of tenofovir on renal function in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018; 97: e9756 DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000009756.
• 120 De Clercq E. Role of tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) in the treatment and prophylaxis of HIV and HBV infections. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 153: 2-11 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2017.11.023.
• 121 Berchtold L, Zanetta G, Dahan K. et al Efficacy and Safety of Rituximab in Hepatitis B Virus-Associated PLA2R-Positive Membranous Nephropathy. Kidney Int Rep 2018; 3: 486-491 DOI: 10.1016/j.ekir.2017.09.009.
• 122 Buonomo AR, Viceconte G, Scotto R. et al Seronegative occult HBV reactivation complicated with fulminant acute liver failure after rituximab for chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Infect Dis (Lond) 2020; 52: 216-218 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2019.1693624.
• 123 Chang WY, Chiu YC, Chiu FW. et al High Risk of Clinical Relapse in Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection After Cessation of Prophylactic Antiviral Therapy for Rituximab-Containing Chemotherapy. J Infect Dis 2020; 222: 1345-1352 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa256.
• 124 Venkataseshan VS, Lieberman K, Kim DU. et al Hepatitis-B-associated glomerulonephritis: pathology, pathogenesis, and clinical course. Medicine (Baltimore) 1990; 69: 200-216
• 125 Sharma A, Sharma K. Hepatotropic viral infection associated systemic vasculitides-hepatitis B virus associated polyarteritis nodosa and hepatitis C virus associated cryoglobulinemic vasculitis. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2013; 3: 204-212 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2013.06.001.
• 126 Mucino-Bermejo MJ. Mechanisms of kidney dysfunction in the cirrhotic patient: Non-hepatorenal acute-on-chronic kidney damage considerations. Ann Hepatol 2020; 19: 145-152 DOI: 10.1016/j.aohep.2019.06.022.
• 127 Hughes LB, Bridges Jr SL. Polyarteritis nodosa and microscopic polyangiitis: etiologic and diagnostic considerations. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2002; 4: 75-82 DOI: 10.1007/s11926-002-0027-8.
• 128 Pagnoux C, Seror R, Henegar C. et al Clinical features and outcomes in 348 patients with polyarteritis nodosa: a systematic retrospective study of patients diagnosed between 1963 and 2005 and entered into the French Vasculitis Study Group Database. Arthritis Rheum 2010; 62: 616-626 DOI: 10.1002/art.27240.
• 129 Guillevin L, Mahr A, Callard P. et al Hepatitis B virus-associated polyarteritis nodosa: clinical characteristics, outcome, and impact of treatment in 115 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2005; 84: 313-322 DOI: 10.1097/01.md.0000180792.80212.5e.
• 130 Guillevin L, Mahr A, Cohen P. et al Short-term corticosteroids then lamivudine and plasma exchanges to treat hepatitis B virus-related polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 51: 482-487 DOI: 10.1002/art.20401.
• 131 de Luna G, Chauveau D, Aniort J. et al Plasma exchanges for the treatment of severe systemic necrotizing vasculitides in clinical daily practice: Data from the French Vasculitis Study Group. J Autoimmun 2015; 65: 49-55 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.08.003.
• 132 Fernanda F, Serena C, Giustina R. et al Mycophenolate mofetil treatment in two children with severe polyarteritis nodosa refractory to immunosuppressant drugs. Rheumatol Int 2012; 32: 2215-2219 DOI: 10.1007/s00296-011-2003-y.
• 133 Castillo I, Martinez-Ara J, Olea T. et al High prevalence of occult hepatitis C virus infection in patients with primary and secondary glomerular nephropathies. Kidney Int 2014; 86: 619-624 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2014.68.
• 134 Sabry AA, Sobh MA, Irving WL. et al A comprehensive study of the association between hepatitis C virus and glomerulopathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002; 17: 239-245 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/17.2.239.
• 135 Kupin WL. Viral-Associated GN: Hepatitis C and HIV. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2017; 12: 1337-1342 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.04320416.
• 136 Barsoum RS, William EA, Khalil SS. Hepatitis C and kidney disease: A narrative review. J Adv Res 2017; 8: 113-130 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2016.07.004.
• 137 Bunchorntavakul C, Mitrani R, Reddy KR. Advances in HCV and Cryoglobulinemic Vasculitis in the Era of DAAs: Are We at the End of the Road?. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2018; 8: 81-94 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2017.11.012.
• 138 Terrier B, Carrat F, Krastinova E. et al Prognostic factors of survival in patients with non-infectious mixed cryoglobulinaemia vasculitis: data from 242 cases included in the CryoVas survey. Ann Rheum Dis 2013; 72: 374-380 DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-201405.
• 139 Fogo AB, Lusco MA, Najafian B. et al AJKD Atlas of Renal Pathology: Cryoglobulinemic Glomerulonephritis. Am J Kidney Dis 2016; 67: e5-e7 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.12.007.
• 140 Harle JR, Disdier P, Dussol B. et al Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis and hepatitis C infection. Lancet 1993; 341: 904 DOI: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)93119-l.
• 141 Johnson RJ, Gretch DR, Yamabe H. et al Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis associated with hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 465-470 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199302183280703.
• 142 Gragnani L, Visentini M, Fognani E. et al Prospective study of guideline-tailored therapy with direct-acting antivirals for hepatitis C virus-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia. Hepatology 2016; 64: 1473-1482 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28753.
• 143 Saadoun D, Thibault V, Si Ahmed SN. et al Sofosbuvir plus ribavirin for hepatitis C virus-associated cryoglobulinaemia vasculitis: VASCUVALDIC study. Ann Rheum Dis 2016; 75: 1777-1782 DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-208339.
• 144 Sise ME, Bloom AK, Wisocky J. et al Treatment of hepatitis C virus-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia with direct-acting antiviral agents. Hepatology 2016; 63: 408-417 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28297.
• 145 Bonacci M, Lens S, Londono MC. et al Virologic, Clinical, and Immune Response Outcomes of Patients With Hepatitis C Virus-Associated Cryoglobulinemia Treated With Direct-Acting Antivirals. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 15: 575-583 e571 DOI: 10.1016/j.cgh.2016.09.158.
• 146 Obata F, Murakami T, Miyagi J. et al A case of rapid amelioration of hepatitis C virus-associated cryoglobulinemic membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis treated by interferon-free directly acting antivirals for HCV in the absence of immunosuppressant. CEN Case Rep 2017; 6: 55-60 DOI: 10.1007/s13730-016-0244-z.
• 147 Tsuge M, Hiramatsu A, Shinohara F. et al Improvement of renal dysfunction in a patient with hepatitis C virus-related liver cirrhosis by daclatasvir and asunaprevir combination therapy: A case report. Hepatol Res 2016; 46: 944-948 DOI: 10.1111/hepr.12629.
• 148 Gane E, Lawitz E, Pugatch D. et al Glecaprevir and Pibrentasvir in Patients with HCV and Severe Renal Impairment. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 1448-1455 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1704053.
• 149 Bruchfeld A, Roth D, Martin P. et al Elbasvir plus grazoprevir in patients with hepatitis C virus infection and stage 4-5 chronic kidney disease: clinical, virological, and health-related quality-of-life outcomes from a phase 3, multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 2: 585-594 DOI: 10.1016/S2468-1253(17)30116-4.
• 150 Alric L, Ollivier-Hourmand I, Berard E. et al Grazoprevir plus elbasvir in HCV genotype-1 or -4 infected patients with stage 4/5 severe chronic kidney disease is safe and effective. Kidney Int 2018; 94: 206-213 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2018.02.019.
• 151 Toyoda H, Kumada T, Tada T. et al Safety and efficacy of dual direct-acting antiviral therapy (daclatasvir and asunaprevir) for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection in patients on hemodialysis. J Gastroenterol 2016; 51: 741-747 DOI: 10.1007/s00535-016-1174-4.
• 152 Kawakami Y, Imamura M, Ikeda H. et al Pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of daclatasvir plus asunaprevir in dialysis patients with chronic hepatitis C: pilot study. J Viral Hepat 2016; 23: 850-856 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12553.
• 153 De Vita S, Quartuccio L, Isola M. et al A randomized controlled trial of rituximab for the treatment of severe cryoglobulinemic vasculitis. Arthritis Rheum 2012; 64: 843-853 DOI: 10.1002/art.34331.
• 154 Koratala A, Zeng X. Rituximab therapy for hepatitis C virus-associated cryoglobulinemic membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. Clin Case Rep 2018; 6: 442-443 DOI: 10.1002/ccr3.1371.
• 155 Montero N, Fava A, Rodriguez E. et al Treatment for hepatitis C virus-associated mixed cryoglobulinaemia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 5: CD011403 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011403.pub2.
• 156 Noble J, Jouve T, Malvezzi P. et al Renal complications of liver diseases. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 12: 1135-1142 DOI: 10.1080/17474124.2018.1530984.
• 157 Mazzaro C, Dal Maso L, Quartuccio L. et al Long-term effects of the new direct antiviral agents (DAAs) therapy for HCV-related mixed cryoglobulinaemia without renal involvement: a multicentre open-label study. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2018; 36 (Suppl. 111) 107-114
• 158 Emery JS, Kuczynski M, La D. et al Efficacy and Safety of Direct Acting Antivirals for the Treatment of Mixed Cryoglobulinemia. Am J Gastroenterol 2017; 112: 1298-1308 DOI: 10.1038/ajg.2017.49.
• 159 Dammacco F, Lauletta G, Russi S. et al Clinical practice: hepatitis C virus infection, cryoglobulinemia and cryoglobulinemic vasculitis. Clin Exp Med 2019; 19: 1-21 DOI: 10.1007/s10238-018-0536-z.
• 160 Ozkok A, Yildiz A. Hepatitis C virus associated glomerulopathies. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20: 7544-7554 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i24.7544.
• 161 Appel GB. Immune-complex glomerulonephritis – deposits plus interest. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 505-506 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199302183280711.
• 162 Sansonno D, Lauletta G, Montrone M. et al Hepatitis C virus RNA and core protein in kidney glomerular and tubular structures isolated with laser capture microdissection. Clin Exp Immunol 2005; 140: 498-506 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02778.x.
• 163 Spatola L, Generali E, Angelini C. et al HCV-negative mixed cryoglobulinemia and kidney involvement: in-depth review on physiopathological and histological bases. Clin Exp Med 2018; 18: 465-471 DOI: 10.1007/s10238-018-0514-5.
• 164 Saadoun D, Terrier B, Semoun O. et al Hepatitis C virus-associated polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63: 427-435 DOI: 10.1002/acr.20381.
• 165 Ramos-Casals M, Munoz S, Medina F. et al Systemic autoimmune diseases in patients with hepatitis C virus infection: characterization of 1020 cases (The HISPAMEC Registry). J Rheumatol 2009; 36: 1442-1448 DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.080874.
• 166 Angeletti A, Cantarelli C, Cravedi P. HCV-Associated Nephropathies in the Era of Direct Acting Antiviral Agents. Front Med (Lausanne) 2019; 6: 20 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2019.00020.
• 167 Lai TS, Lee MH, Yang HI. et al Hepatitis C viral load, genotype, and increased risk of developing end-stage renal disease: REVEAL-HCV study. Hepatology 2017; 66: 784-793 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29192.
• 168 Sabry A, A EA, Sheashaa H et al. HCV associated glomerulopathy in Egyptian patients: clinicopathological analysis. Virology 2005; 334: 10-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.01.013.
• 169 Pol S, Parlati L, Jadoul M. Hepatitis C virus and the kidney. Nat Rev Nephrol 2019; 15: 73-86 DOI: 10.1038/s41581-018-0081-8.
• 170 Fabrizi F, Messa P. Treatment Choices for Hepatitis C in Patients with Kidney Disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2018; 13: 793-795 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.12621117.
• 171 Perico N, Cattaneo D, Bikbov B. et al Hepatitis C infection and chronic renal diseases. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009; 4: 207-220 DOI: 10.2215/CJN.03710708.
• 172 European Association for theStudy of the Liver. Electronic address eee, Clinical Practice Guidelines Panel C, representative EGB et al. EASL recommendations on treatment of hepatitis C: Final update of the series. J Hepatol 2020; 73: 1170-1218 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2020.08.018.
• 173 Sarrazin C, Zimmermann T, Berg T. et al [Prophylaxis, diagnosis and therapy of hepatitis-C-virus (HCV) infection: the German guidelines on the management of HCV infection – AWMF-Register-No.: 021/012]. Z Gastroenterol 2018; 56: 756-838 DOI: 10.1055/a-0599-1320.
• 174 Jadoul M, Berenguer MC, Doss W. et al Executive summary of the 2018 KDIGO Hepatitis C in CKD Guideline: welcoming advances in evaluation and management. Kidney Int 2018; 94: 663-673 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2018.06.011.
• 175 AASLD–IDSA. HCV guidance: recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C. In; 2017: HCV Guidelines
• 176 Gines P, Schrier RW. Renal failure in cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1279-1290 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra0809139.
• 177 Durand F, Graupera I, Gines P. et al Pathogenesis of Hepatorenal Syndrome: Implications for Therapy. Am J Kidney Dis 2016; 67: 318-328 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.09.013.
• 178 Wong F. The evolving concept of acute kidney injury in patients with cirrhosis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 12: 711-719 DOI: 10.1038/nrgastro.2015.174.
• 179 Salerno F, Gerbes A, Gines P. et al Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Gut 2007; 56: 1310-1318 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2006.107789.
• 180 Gerbes AL, Labenz J, Appenrodt B. et al [Updated S2k-Guideline “Complications of liver cirrhosis”. German Society of Gastroenterology (DGVS)]. Z Gastroenterol 2019; 57: e168 DOI: 10.1055/a-0928-2800.
• 181 Sort P, Navasa M, Arroyo V. et al Effect of intravenous albumin on renal impairment and mortality in patients with cirrhosis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. The New England journal of medicine 1999; 341: 403-409 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199908053410603.
• 182 Follo A, Llovet JM, Navasa M. et al Renal impairment after spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: incidence, clinical course, predictive factors and prognosis. Hepatology 1994; 20: 1495-1501
• 183 Fasolato S, Angeli P, Dallagnese L. et al Renal failure and bacterial infections in patients with cirrhosis: epidemiology and clinical features. Hepatology 2007; 45: 223-229 DOI: 10.1002/hep.21443.
• 184 Terra C, Guevara M, Torre A. et al Renal failure in patients with cirrhosis and sepsis unrelated to spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: value of MELD score. Gastroenterology 2005; 129: 1944-1953 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.09.024.
• 185 Gines A, Fernandez-Esparrach G, Monescillo A. et al Randomized trial comparing albumin, dextran 70, and polygeline in cirrhotic patients with ascites treated by paracentesis. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 1002-1010 DOI: 10.1016/s0016-5085(96)70068-9.
• 186 Angeli P, Fasolato S, Mazza E. et al Combined versus sequential diuretic treatment of ascites in non-azotaemic patients with cirrhosis: results of an open randomised clinical trial. Gut 2010; 59: 98-104 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2008.176495.
• 187 Akriviadis E, Botla R, Briggs W. et al Pentoxifylline improves short-term survival in severe acute alcoholic hepatitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 1637-1648 DOI: 10.1053/gast.2000.20189.
• 188 Leithead JA, Ferguson JW, Bates CM. et al The systemic inflammatory response syndrome is predictive of renal dysfunction in patients with non-paracetamol-induced acute liver failure. Gut 2009; 58: 443-449 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2008.154120.
• 189 Lima C, Macedo E. Urinary Biochemistry in the Diagnosis of Acute Kidney Injury. Dis Markers 2018; 2018: 4907024 DOI: 10.1155/2018/4907024.
• 190 Davenport A, Argawal B, Wright G. et al Can non-invasive measurements aid clinical assessment of volume in patients with cirrhosis?. World J Hepatol 2013; 5: 433-438 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v5.i8.433.
• 191 Ostermann M, Joannidis M. Acute kidney injury 2016: diagnosis and diagnostic workup. Crit Care 2016; 20: 299 DOI: 10.1186/s13054-016-1478-z.
• 192 Francoz C, Nadim MK, Durand F. Kidney biomarkers in cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2016; 65: 809-824 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.05.025.
• 193 Sinclair M, Gow PJ, Grossmann M. et al Review article: sarcopenia in cirrhosis – aetiology, implications and potential therapeutic interventions. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics 2016; 43: 765-777 DOI: 10.1111/apt.13549.
• 194 Piano S, Rosi S, Maresio G. et al Evaluation of the Acute Kidney Injury Network criteria in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis and ascites. Journal of hepatology 2013; 59: 482-489 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2013.03.039.
• 195 Wong F, O'Leary JG, Reddy KR. et al New consensus definition of acute kidney injury accurately predicts 30-day mortality in patients with cirrhosis and infection. Gastroenterology 2013; 145: 1280-1288 e1281 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.08.051.
• 196 Belcher JM, Garcia-Tsao G, Sanyal AJ. et al Association of AKI with mortality and complications in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology 2013; 57: 753-762 DOI: 10.1002/hep.25735.
• 197 Fagundes C, Barreto R, Guevara M. et al A modified acute kidney injury classification for diagnosis and risk stratification of impairment of kidney function in cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2013; 59: 474-481 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2013.04.036.
• 198 Tsien CD, Rabie R, Wong F. Acute kidney injury in decompensated cirrhosis. Gut 2013; 62: 131-137 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301255.
• 199 de Carvalho JR, Villela-Nogueira CA, Luiz RR. et al Acute kidney injury network criteria as a predictor of hospital mortality in cirrhotic patients with ascites. Journal of clinical gastroenterology 2012; 46: e21-e26 DOI: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e31822e8e12.
• 200 Angeli P, Gines P, Wong F. et al Diagnosis and management of acute kidney injury in patients with cirrhosis: revised consensus recommendations of the International Club of Ascites. Journal of hepatology 2015; 62: 968-974 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.12.029.
• 201 Angeli P, Garcia-Tsao G, Nadim MK. et al News in pathophysiology, definition and classification of hepatorenal syndrome: A step beyond the International Club of Ascites (ICA) consensus document. J Hepatol 2019; 71: 811-822 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2019.07.002.
• 202 [Anonym]. Summary of Recommendation Statements. Kidney international supplements 2012; 2: 8-12 DOI: 10.1038/kisup.2012.7.
• 203 Simonetto DA, Gines P, Kamath PS. Hepatorenal syndrome: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. BMJ 2020; 370: m2687 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.m2687.
• 204 Badr KF, Ichikawa I. Prerenal failure: a deleterious shift from renal compensation to decompensation. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 623-629 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198809083191007.
• 205 Sansoe G, Silvano S, Mengozzi G. et al Loss of tubuloglomerular feedback in decompensated liver cirrhosis: physiopathological implications. Dig Dis Sci 2005; 50: 955-963 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-005-2671-0.
• 206 Stadlbauer V, Wright GA, Banaji M. et al Relationship between activation of the sympathetic nervous system and renal blood flow autoregulation in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2008; 134: 111-119 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2007.10.055.
• 207 Bonavia A, Vece G, Karamchandani K. Prerenal acute kidney injury-still a relevant term in modern clinical practice?. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2020; DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfaa061.
• 208 Ala A, Walker AP, Ashkan K. et al Wilson's disease. Lancet 2007; 369: 397-408 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60196-2.
• 209 Scheiber IF, Bruha R, Dusek P. Pathogenesis of Wilson disease. Handb Clin Neurol 2017; 142: 43-55 DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63625-6.00005-7.
• 210 Tsuchiya M, Takaki R, Kobayashi F. et al Multiple pseudofractures due to Fanconi's syndrome associated with Wilson's disease. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2017; 57: 527-530 DOI: 10.5692/clinicalneurol.cn-000953.
• 211 Wang H, Zhou Z, Hu J. et al Renal impairment in different phenotypes of Wilson disease. Neurol Sci 2015; 36: 2111-2115 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-015-2322-y.
• 212 Efe C, Ozaslan E, Purnak T. et al Membranous glomerulonephritis associated with autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome: a very rare condition. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010; 22: 1149-1150 DOI: 10.1097/MEG.0b013e3283379768.
• 213 Fickert P, Krones E, Pollheimer MJ. et al Bile acids trigger cholemic nephropathy in common bile-duct-ligated mice. Hepatology 2013; 58: 2056-2069 DOI: 10.1002/hep.26599.
• 214 van Slambrouck CM, Salem F, Meehan SM. et al Bile cast nephropathy is a common pathologic finding for kidney injury associated with severe liver dysfunction. Kidney Int 2013; 84: 192-197 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2013.78.
• 215 Garcia-Tsao G, Parikh CR, Viola A. Acute kidney injury in cirrhosis. Hepatology 2008; 48: 2064-2077 DOI: 10.1002/hep.22605.
• 216 Russ KB, Stevens TM, Singal AK. Acute Kidney Injury in Patients with Cirrhosis. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2015; 3: 195-204 DOI: 10.14218/JCTH.2015.00015.
• 217 Hara N, Kawaguchi M, Takeda K. et al Retroperitoneal disorders associated with IgG4-related autoimmune pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20: 16550-16558 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i44.16550.
• 218 Lei WH, Xin J, Shao CX. et al IgG4-related Kidney Disease Mimicking Malignant Ureter Tumor: Case Report and Literature Review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95: e2550 DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000002550.
• 219 Esprit DH, Koratala A, Chornyy V. et al Obstructive Nephropathy Without Hydronephrosis: Suspicion Is the Key. Urology 2017; 101: e9-e10 DOI: 10.1016/j.urology.2016.11.041.