PDF herunterladen
Hamostaseologie 2020; 40(03): 280-291
DOI: 10.1055/a-1171-0486
Review Article
Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

How to Differentiate Recurrent Deep Vein Thrombosis from Postthrombotic Syndrome

Gargi Gautam‡   *
1   Department of Clinical Sciences, Karolinska Institute, Danderyd Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
,
Tim Sebastian    *
2   Clinic for Angiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
,
Frederikus A. Klok
3   Department of Medicine – Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
› Institutsangaben
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

30. Januar 2020

05. Mai 2020

Publikationsdatum:
29. Juli 2020 (online)

Auch verfügbar auf
   Lizenzen und Reprints

Abstract

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Accuracy of diagnosis is thus of vital importance. Failure to diagnose VTE increases the risk of progression and complications. Conversely, anticoagulation as a result of an incorrect diagnosis exposes patients to the associated hazards of bleeding. The diagnostic management of recurrent deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and postthrombotic syndrome (PTS) is especially challenging due to the lack of well-established diagnostic standards. Particularly, the differentiation between the two is notoriously difficult as symptoms, clinical signs, and diagnostic test findings largely overlap. This review highlights the current diagnostic and management strategies for recurrent DVT and PTS with a focus on clinical findings and imaging modalities. We also discuss current open questions for clinicians in the field, anticipating future directions and predictions for the year 2050.

Keywords

venous thromboembolism - deep vein thrombosis - recurrent VTE - postthrombotic syndrome

* Contributed equally.


 

  • References

  • 1 Raskob GE, Angchaisuksiri P, Blanco AN. , et al; ISTH Steering Committee for World Thrombosis Day. Thrombosis: a major contributor to global disease burden. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014; 34 (11) 2363-2371
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Barco S, Mahmoudpour SH, Valerio L. , et al. Trends in mortality related to pulmonary embolism in the European Region, 2000–15: analysis of vital registration data from the WHO Mortality Database. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8 (03) 277-287
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Klok FA, Kooiman J, Huisman MV, Konstantinides S, Lankeit M. Predicting anticoagulant-related bleeding in patients with venous thromboembolism: a clinically oriented review. Eur Respir J 2015; 45 (01) 201-210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Linkins LA, Choi PT, Douketis JD. Clinical impact of bleeding in patients taking oral anticoagulant therapy for venous thromboembolism: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139 (11) 893-900
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Khan F, Rahman A, Carrier M. , et al; MARVELOUS Collaborators. Long term risk of symptomatic recurrent venous thromboembolism after discontinuation of anticoagulant treatment for first unprovoked venous thromboembolism event: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2019; 366: l4363
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 van der Wall SJ, van der Pol LM, Ende-Verhaar YM. , et al. Fatal recurrent VTE after anticoagulant treatment for unprovoked VTE: a systematic review. Eur Respir Rev 2018; 27 (150) 180094
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Klok FA, Barco S, Konstantinides SV. External validation of the VTE-BLEED score for predicting major bleeding in stable anticoagulated patients with venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost 2017; 117 (06) 1164-1170
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Klok FA, Hösel V, Clemens A. , et al. Prediction of bleeding events in patients with venous thromboembolism on stable anticoagulation treatment. Eur Respir J 2016; 48 (05) 1369-1376
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Barco S, Konstantinides S, Huisman MV, Klok FA. Diagnosis of recurrent venous thromboembolism. Thromb Res 2018; 163: 229-235
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Kahn SR, Comerota AJ, Cushman M. , et al; American Heart Association Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease, Council on Clinical Cardiology, and Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing. The postthrombotic syndrome: evidence-based prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2014; 130 (18) 1636-1661
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Ende-Verhaar YM, Tick LW, Klok FA. , et al. Post-thrombotic syndrome: short and long-term incidence and risk factors. Thromb Res 2019; 177: 102-109
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Caprini JA, Botteman MF, Stephens JM. , et al. Economic burden of long-term complications of deep vein thrombosis after total hip replacement surgery in the United States. Value Health 2003; 6 (01) 59-74
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Baldwin MJ, Moore HM, Rudarakanchana N, Gohel M, Davies AH. Post-thrombotic syndrome: a clinical review. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11 (05) 795-805
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Di Nisio M, van Es N, Büller HR. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Lancet 2016; 388 (10063): 3060-3073
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Geersing GJ, Zuithoff NP, Kearon C. , et al. Exclusion of deep vein thrombosis using the Wells rule in clinically important subgroups: individual patient data meta-analysis. BMJ 2014; 348: g1340
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Goodacre S, Sutton AJ, Sampson FC. Meta-analysis: the value of clinical assessment in the diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143 (02) 129-139
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Aguilar C, del Villar V. Combined D-dimer and clinical probability are useful for exclusion of recurrent deep venous thrombosis. Am J Hematol 2007; 82 (01) 41-44
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Hansson PO, Sörbo J, Eriksson H. Recurrent venous thromboembolism after deep vein thrombosis: incidence and risk factors. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160 (06) 769-774
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Bates SM, Jaeschke R, Stevens SM. , et al. Diagnosis of DVT: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012; 141 (2, Suppl): e351S-e418S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Tan M, Mos IC, Klok FA, Huisman MV. Residual venous thrombosis as predictive factor for recurrent venous thromboembolism in patients with proximal deep vein thrombosis: a systematic review. Br J Haematol 2011; 153 (02) 168-178
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Tan M, Velthuis SI, Westerbeek RE, VAN Rooden CJ, VAN DER Meer FJ, Huisman MV. High percentage of non-diagnostic compression ultrasonography results and the diagnosis of ipsilateral recurrent proximal deep vein thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2010; 8 (04) 848-850
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Ageno W, Squizzato A, Wells PS, Büller HR, Johnson G. The diagnosis of symptomatic recurrent pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis: guidance from the SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11 (08) 1597-1602
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Wells PS, Hirsh J, Anderson DR. , et al. Accuracy of clinical assessment of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet 1995; 345 (8961): 1326-1330
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Constans J, Boutinet C, Salmi LR. , et al. Comparison of four clinical prediction scores for the diagnosis of lower limb deep venous thrombosis in outpatients. Am J Med 2003; 115 (06) 436-440
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 van der Velde EF, Toll DB, Ten Cate-Hoek AJ. , et al. Comparing the diagnostic performance of 2 clinical decision rules to rule out deep vein thrombosis in primary care patients. Ann Fam Med 2011; 9 (01) 31-36
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Lim W, Le Gal G, Bates SM. , et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: diagnosis of venous thromboembolism. Blood Adv 2018; 2 (22) 3226-3256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Dronkers CE, Tan M, Mol GC. , et al. Evaluation of the new simple and objective clinical decision rule “I-DVT” in patients with clinically suspected acute deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Res 2016; 141: 112-118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Rathbun SW, Whitsett TL, Raskob GE. Negative D-dimer result to exclude recurrent deep venous thrombosis: a management trial. Ann Intern Med 2004; 141 (11) 839-845
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Prandoni P, Tormene D, Dalla Valle F, Concolato A, Pesavento R. D-dimer as an adjunct to compression ultrasonography in patients with suspected recurrent deep vein thrombosis. J ThrombHaemost 2007; 5 (05) 1076-1077
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Dronkers CEA, Ende-Verhaar YM, Kyrle PA. , et al; Subcommittee on Predictive and Diagnostic Variables in Thrombotic Disease. Disease prevalence dependent failure rate in diagnostic management studies on suspected deep vein thrombosis: communication from the SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost 2017; 15 (11) 2270-2273
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Heit JA. Epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Nat Rev Cardiol 2015; 12 (08) 464-474
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Nybo M, Hvas AM. Age-adjusted D-dimer cut-off in the diagnostic strategy for deep vein thrombosis: a systematic review. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2017; 77 (08) 568-573
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Reardon PM, Patrick S, Taljaard M. , et al. Diagnostic accuracy and financial implications of age-adjusted D-dimer strategies for the diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis in the emergency department. J Emerg Med 2019; 56 (05) 469-477
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Fronas SG, Wik HS, Dahm AEA. , et al. Safety of D-dimer testing as a stand-alone test for the exclusion of deep vein thrombosis as compared with other strategies. J Thromb Haemost 2018; 16 (12) 2471-2481
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Dronkers CE, Klok FA, Huisman MV. Current and future perspectives in imaging of venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Haemost 2016; 14 (09) 1696-1710
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Huisman MV, Klok FA. Current challenges in diagnostic imaging of venous thromboembolism. Blood 2015; 126 (21) 2376-2382
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Huisman MV, Klok FA. Diagnostic management of acute deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11 (03) 412-422
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Robert-Ebadi H, Righini M. Management of distal deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Res 2017; 149: 48-55
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Schellong SM, Goldhaber SZ, Weitz JI. , et al. Isolated distal deep vein thrombosis: perspectives from the GARFIELD-VTE Registry. Thromb Haemost 2019; 19 (10) 1675-1685
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Piovella F, Crippa L, Barone M. , et al. Normalization rates of compression ultrasonography in patients with a first episode of deep vein thrombosis of the lower limbs: association with recurrence and new thrombosis. Haematologica 2002; 87 (05) 515-522
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Galanaud JP, Righini M, Le Collen L. , et al. Long-term risk of postthrombotic syndrome after symptomatic distal deep vein thrombosis: the CACTUS-PTS study. J Thromb Haemost 2020; 18 (04) 857-864
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Kearon C, Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J. The role of venous ultrasonography in the diagnosis of suspected deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129 (12) 1044-1049
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Needleman L, Cronan JJ, Lilly MP. , et al. Ultrasound for lower extremity deep venous thrombosis: multidisciplinary recommendations from the Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference. Circulation 2018; 137 (14) 1505-1515
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Maufus M, Elias A, Barrellier MT, Pernod G. ; French Society for Vascular Medicine. Diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis recurrence: ultrasound criteria. Thromb Res 2018; 161: 78-83
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Linkins LA, Stretton R, Probyn L, Kearon C. Interobserver agreement on ultrasound measurements of residual vein diameter, thrombus echogenicity and Doppler venous flow in patients with previous venous thrombosis. Thromb Res 2006; 117 (03) 241-247
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Janakiram M, Sullivan M, Shcherba M, Guo S, Billett HH. A systematic review of the utility of residual vein obstruction studies in primary and secondary venous thrombosis. Thrombosis 2013; 2013: 247913
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Donadini MP, Ageno W, Antonucci E. , et al. Prognostic significance of residual venous obstruction in patients with treated unprovoked deep vein thrombosis: a patient-level meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost 2014; 111 (01) 172-179
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 LE Gal G, Carrier M, Kovacs MJ. , et al. Residual vein obstruction as a predictor for recurrent thromboembolic events after a first unprovoked episode: data from the REVERSE cohort study. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (06) 1126-1132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Prandoni P, Prins MH, Lensing AW. , et al; AESOPUS Investigators. Residual thrombosis on ultrasonography to guide the duration of anticoagulation in patients with deep venous thrombosis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2009; 150 (09) 577-585
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Carrier M, Rodger MA, Wells PS, Righini M, LE Gal G. Residual vein obstruction to predict the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism in patients with deep vein thrombosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (06) 1119-1125
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Nagler M, Ten Cate H, Prins MH, Ten Cate-Hoek AJ. Risk factors for recurrence in deep vein thrombosis patients following a tailored anticoagulant treatment incorporating residual vein obstruction. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2018; 2 (02) 299-309
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Yoo T, Aggarwal R, Wang TF, Satiani B, Haurani MJ. Presence and degree of residual venous obstruction on serial duplex imaging is associated with increased risk of recurrence and progression of infrainguinal lower extremity deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2018; 6 (05) 575.e1-583.e1
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Mazetto BM, Orsi FLA, Silveira SAF. , et al. Residual vein thrombosis echogenicity is associated to the risk of DVT recurrence: a cohort study. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2018; 24 (03) 477-482
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Watson HG. RVO–real value obscure. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (06) 1116-1118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Dronkers CEA, Klok FA, van Haren GR. , et al. Diagnosing upper extremity deep vein thrombosis with non-contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging: a pilot study. Thromb Res 2018; 163: 47-50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Dronkers CEA, Klok FA, van Langevelde K. , et al. Diagnosing recurrent DVT of the leg by two different non-contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging techniques: a pilot study. TH Open 2019; 3 (01) e37-e44
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Klok FA, Pruefer D, Rolf A, Konstantinides SV. Magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging for pre-operative assessment of acute thrombosis in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Heart J 2019; 40 (11) 944
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Fraser DG, Moody AR, Morgan PS, Martel AL, Davidson I. Diagnosis of lower-limb deep venous thrombosis: a prospective blinded study of magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136 (02) 89-98
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Westerbeek RE, Van Rooden CJ, Tan M. , et al. Magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging of the evolution of acute deep vein thrombosis of the leg. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6 (07) 1087-1092
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Tan M, Mol GC, van Rooden CJ. , et al. Magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging differentiates acute recurrent ipsilateral deep vein thrombosis from residual thrombosis. Blood 2014; 124 (04) 623-627
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Klok FA, Tan M, Huisman MV. Letter by Klok et al regarding article, “18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography enables the detection of recurrent same-site deep vein thrombosis by illuminating recently formed, neutrophil-rich thrombus”. Circulation 2015; 131 (24) e530
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 van Dam LF, Dronkers CEA, Gautam G. , et al. Diagnosis of suspected recurrent ipsilateral deep vein thrombosis with magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging. Blood 2020; 135 (16) 1377-1385
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Bergan JJ, Schmid-Schönbein GW, Smith PD, Nicolaides AN, Boisseau MR, Eklof B. Chronic venous disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 355 (05) 488-498
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Tick LW, Kramer MH, Rosendaal FR, Faber WR, Doggen CJ. Risk factors for post-thrombotic syndrome in patients with a first deep venous thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6 (12) 2075-2081
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Labropoulos N, Waggoner T, Sammis W, Samali S, Pappas PJ. The effect of venous thrombus location and extent on the development of post-thrombotic signs and symptoms. J Vasc Surg 2008; 48 (02) 407-412
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Amin EE, van Kuijk SMJ, Joore MA, Prandoni P, Ten Cate H, Ten Cate-Hoek AJ. Development and validation of a practical two-step prediction model and clinical risk score for post-thrombotic syndrome. Thromb Haemost 2018; 118 (07) 1242-1249
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Tick LW, Doggen CJ, Rosendaal FR. , et al. Predictors of the post-thrombotic syndrome with non-invasive venous examinations in patients 6 weeks after a first episode of deep vein thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2010; 8 (12) 2685-2692
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Rabinovich A, Gu CS, Vedantham S. , et al; ATTRACT Trial Investigators. External validation of the SOX-PTS score in a prospective multicenter trial of patients with proximal deep vein thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2020; 18 (06) 1381-1389 (e-pub ahead of print). Doi: 10.1111/jth.14791
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Mahnken AH, Thomson K, de Haan M, O'Sullivan GJ. CIRSE standards of practice guidelines on iliocaval stenting. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2014; 37 (04) 889-897
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Kahn SR. Measurement properties of the Villalta scale to define and classify the severity of the post-thrombotic syndrome. J Thromb Haemost 2009; 7 (05) 884-888
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Ten Cate-Hoek AJ. Prevention and treatment of the post-thrombotic syndrome. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2018; 2 (02) 209-219
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Coleridge-Smith P, Labropoulos N, Partsch H, Myers K, Nicolaides A, Cavezzi A. Duplex ultrasound investigation of the veins in chronic venous disease of the lower limbs–UIP consensus document. Part I. Basic principles. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2006; 31 (01) 83-92
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Pichot OMC. Role of duplex ultrasound investigation in the management of postthrombotic syndrome. Phlebolymphology 2016; 23 (02) 102-110
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Prandoni P, Frulla M, Sartor D, Concolato A, Girolami A. Vein abnormalities and the post-thrombotic syndrome. J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3 (02) 401-402
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Vedovetto V, Dalla Valle F, Milan M, Pesavento R, Prandoni P. Residual vein thrombosis and trans-popliteal reflux in patients with and without the post-thrombotic syndrome. Thromb Haemost 2013; 110 (04) 854-855
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Hertzberg BS, Kliewer MA, DeLong DM. , et al. Sonographic assessment of lower limb vein diameters: implications for the diagnosis and characterization of deep venous thrombosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168 (05) 1253-1257
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Kayılıoğlu SI, Köksoy C, Alaçayır İ. Diagnostic value of the femoral vein flow pattern for the detection of an iliocaval venous obstruction. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2016; 4 (01) 2-8
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Labropoulos N, Borge M, Pierce K, Pappas PJ. Criteria for defining significant central vein stenosis with duplex ultrasound. J Vasc Surg 2007; 46 (01) 101-107
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Metzger PB, Rossi FH, Kambara AM. , et al. Criteria for detecting significant chronic iliac venous obstructions with duplex ultrasound. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2016; 4 (01) 18-27
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Wittens C, Davies AH, Bækgaard N. , et al; ESVS Guidelines Committee. Editor's choice - management of chronic venous disease: clinical practice guidelines of the European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2015; 49 (06) 678-737
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Park EA, Lee W, Lee MW. , et al. Chronic-stage deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremities: indirect CT venographic findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2007; 31 (04) 649-656
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Chung JW, Yoon CJ, Jung SI. , et al. Acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis: evaluation of underlying anatomic abnormalities by spiral CT venography. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2004; 15 (03) 249-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Lindquist CM, Karlicki F, Lawrence P, Strzelczyk J, Pawlyshyn N, Kirkpatrick ID. Utility of balanced steady-state free precession MR venography in the diagnosis of lower extremity deep venous thrombosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2010; 194 (05) 1357-1364
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Helyar VG, Gupta Y, Blakeway L, Charles-Edwards G, Katsanos K, Karunanithy N. Depiction of lower limb venous anatomy in patients undergoing interventional deep venous reconstruction-the role of balanced steady state free precession MRI. Br J Radiol 2018; 91 (1082): 20170005
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Gagne PJ, Tahara RW, Fastabend CP. , et al. Venography versus intravascular ultrasound for diagnosing and treating iliofemoral vein obstruction. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2017; 5 (05) 678-687
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Delis KT, Bountouroglou D, Mansfield AO. Venous claudication in iliofemoral thrombosis: long-term effects on venous hemodynamics, clinical status, and quality of life. Ann Surg 2004; 239 (01) 118-126
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Delis KT, Bjarnason H, Wennberg PW, Rooke TW, Gloviczki P. Successful iliac vein and inferior vena cava stenting ameliorates venous claudication and improves venous outflow, calf muscle pump function, and clinical status in post-thrombotic syndrome. Ann Surg 2007; 245 (01) 130-139
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Sebastian T, Dopheide JF, Engelberger RP, Spirk D, Kucher N. Outcomes of endovascular reconstruction of the inferior vena cava with self-expanding nitinol stents. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2018; 6 (03) 312-320
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Murphy EH, Johns B, Varney E, Raju S. Endovascular management of chronic total occlusions of the inferior vena cava and iliac veins. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2017; 5 (01) 47-59
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Chick JFB, Jo A, Meadows JM. , et al. Endovascular iliocaval stent reconstruction for inferior vena cava filter-associated iliocaval thrombosis: approach, technical success, safety, and two-year outcomes in 120 patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2017; 28 (07) 933-939
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Raju S. Best management options for chronic iliac vein stenosis and occlusion. J Vasc Surg 2013; 57 (04) 1163-1169
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 O'Donnell Jr TF, Passman MA, Marston WA. , et al; Society for Vascular Surgery; American Venous Forum. Management of venous leg ulcers: clinical practice guidelines of the Society for Vascular Surgery ® and the American Venous Forum. J Vasc Surg 2014; 60 (2, Suppl): 3S-59S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Razavi MK, Jaff MR, Miller LE. Safety and effectiveness of stent placement for iliofemoral venous outflow obstruction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2015; 8 (10) e002772
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Sebastian T, Spirk D, Engelberger RP. , et al. Incidence of stent thrombosis after endovascular treatment of iliofemoral or caval veins in patients with the postthrombotic syndrome. Thromb Haemost 2019; 119 (12) 2064-2073
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Milinis K, Thapar A, Shalhoub J, Davies AH. Antithrombotic therapy following venous stenting: International Delphi Consensus. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2018; 55 (04) 537-544
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar